Indigenous agroforestry systems for addressing climate change mitigation and food insecurity: A review of contributions to ecosystem services

The complex plant species assemblages associated with Indigenous agroforestry systems were developed over millennia to adapt to an ever-changing environment, often mimicking the elevated levels of biodiversity and natural disturbances found in natural forest ecosystems. Previous studies have demonstrated that multi-storied Indigenous gardening systems contribute significantly to biodiversity conservation, soil health, and heat mitigation. Accordingly, adopting these methods could help 21st-century agricultural resource managers enhance the resilience of food production systems in a rapidly changing climate, including increased periods of heat, drought, rainfall, and biodiversity loss. This review paper highlights the ecosystem services supported by Indigenous agroforestry practices, their historical roots, positive species interactions in ecosystem services, and their ability to sustain food production within their communities. By reviewing 82 global case studies, we documented and analyzed the contributions of Indigenous agroforestry systems to biodiversity conservation, soil conservation practices, and their ability to withstand climate extremes. Additionally, we compared case studies to determine complementary adaptations across the regions in question. This paper underscores the importance of highlighting the contributions of ancient traditional ecological knowledge to 21st-century problems, while also advocating for collaborative efforts to ensure the conservation of Indigenous agroforestry systems.