Capturing Value with Cereal Rye: Growing High Quality Rye in the Northeast for Value-Added Markets

Objective 1: Determine the demand and market requirements for cereal rye across a variety of sectors. 

These were our main findings:

Growers (N=26)

• Producers are reluctant to expand production unless they are sure of a market.
• The main market for cereal rye is seed, with much of it grown as a cover crop in the Northeast.
• Yield came up as a major concern in the focus group.
• Top concerns other than yield were access to organic seed, germination rate, pathogens and mycotoxins, and flavor.
• Most producers sell through multiple channels for several different end uses.
• Lack of market and low prices were common complaints in both the survey and focus group.
• About a third were unable to sell all the rye that they grew.
• Specifications for food-grade and distilling markets are not always consistent or readily known.

Distillers and Maltsters (N=32)

• Demand is not being met for several value-added products, particularly distilled spirits.
• Flavor is the top concern for both groups.
• Sourcing grain from local or in-state farms is the second biggest priority for distillers.
• Maltsters require a high germination rate, not a concern for distillers.
• Supply chains are short, with most buying directly from farmers.
• Purchases are evenly split between pre-season contracts and informal agreements / spot market.
• Storage capacity is a limiting factor.

Millers and Bakers (N=26)

• Baking results are unpredictable and vary widely depending on the variety and other factors.
• Bakers are not always clear on which quality parameters to look for and which values differentiate high quality from low quality rye.
• Wary of purchasing Variety Not Specified (VNS) rye.
• A few operations were vertically integrated from field to table, growing to baking.
• Several noted that rye is more difficult to mill than wheat.
• Only one miller was unable to get all the rye they needed to fill their orders.

Seed Dealers (N=17)

• Other than yield, germination is their top concern, followed by cleanliness and certified organic status.
• Most likely to have pre-season contracts with producers.
• Much of what is grown is sold for cover crop seed.
• All but one was able to get all the rye seed needed.
• Many incentive programs may be responsible for driving up demand for rye seed for use as cover crops.
• Rye seed is currently more expensive than wheat (Fall 2023).

Cleaners, Aggregators (N=15)

• Cleanliness and germination rate were their top concerns.
• Ergot and vomitoxin
• Most have their product milled into flour.
• Rye flakes and cracked rye products were noted to require very clean grain.

Feed Millers (N=9)

• Top concern is protein content, cited by 64%.
• Organic status, pathogens, and cleanliness.
• Respondents cited ergot and DON as specific concerns by a third of respondents.
• Livestock producers grow rye in rotation and mill for their own herds.
• Eight out of eleven respondents grew their own rye.
• Cereal rye can also be grown as a forage crop in pastures.
• Producers expressed Interest in rye for animal feed.

The Takeaway

• Clear opportunities exist to expand production of rye for seed and for value-added markets.
• Distilling and baking appear to offer the most demand for value-added products.
• Distillers, flour millers, and bakers want to know which varieties are the most flavorful, offering opportunities for plant breeders and sensory researchers.
• There is a need to better understand functional attributes of different varieties, and between hybrid and open pollinated varieties.
• Millers are not always clear on which quality parameters are important to their bakers and can experience variation in end-products by variety or growing year even if lab analyses appear similar. There is an opportunity for further research to better understand quality attributes for baking.
• Value-added markets such as distilling and baking want cleaner grain and better quality, but may not be willing to pay farmers enough of a premium to give them an incentive to produce
• The value chain relies mostly on informal agreements and the spot market.
• Cereal rye offers several agronomic benefits in weed suppression, breaking host cycles for pests and diseases, and fitting as a suitable winter small grain for the Northeast region.
• Rye can be planted as a cover crop to add organic matter, reduce erosion, and can be both planted as and followed by disking or as a no-till crop without herbicides through the use of a roller-crimper..
• Rye is versatile and offers producers flexibility in marketing and on-farm end uses.

2023 Weather Data

The fall of 2022 had average weather in terms of precipitation and temperature. The main growing season in the spring and summer of 2023 was slightly cooler than average and much wetter. Over 28 inches of rain fell from April through July, 9.65 inches more than normal. A total of 6503 growing degree days (GDDs) accumulated over the fall of 2022 and spring and summer of 2023, 32 GDDs more than normal.

 Table 7. Temperature and precipitation summary for Alburgh, VT, 2022 and 2023 growing season.

Based on weather data from a Davis Instruments Vantage Pro2 with WeatherLink data logger. Historical averages are for 30 years of NOAA data (1981-2010) from Burlington, VT. (http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/page_nowdata.html).

The weather in the fall of 2023 had close to average precipitation and temperature. The main growing season in the spring and summer of 2024 was warmer than average and wetter. A total of 28.1 inches of rain fell from April through July, 4.91 inches more than normal. A total of 6661 growing degree days (GDDs) accumulated over the fall of 2023 and spring and summer of 2024, 190 GDDs more than normal.

Table 2. Temperature and precipitation summary for Alburgh, VT, 2023 and 2024 growing season.

Based on weather data from a Davis Instruments Vantage Pro2 with WeatherLink data logger. Historical averages are for 30 years of NOAA data (1981-2010) from Burlington, VT. (http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/page_nowdata.html).

Objective 2: To determine which cereal rye varieties are most appropriate for various end-uses 

2024 Cereal rye variety trial

There were significant differences among varieties for winter survival, vigor, height, and lodging (Table 4). Each plot of Rymin within the study showed 100% winterkill and, as such, is not further included in the remainder of the report. Otherwise the majority of varieties had 100% winter survival, or were statistically similar to those with 100% survival, with the exception of Bono, which averaged 72.5% survival within the trial. To further distinguish between varieties and assess overall plant health at spring green-up, a vigor rating was given to each plot. Those varieties with higher values showed dark green, healthy plant growth with little to no leaf damage as a result of winter kill or disease. Plant vigor was highest with ND Gardener and Spooner rating 8.5 on the vigor scale, with the lowest being Bono, rating 4.25. These two most vigorous varieties in the spring were also the two outliers for average plant height with the tallest plants observed in Spooner at 172 cm, and ND Gardener at 168 cm. As a result of weather conditions and the overall plant vigor, these were two of the more susceptible varieties to lodging in addition to Aroostook, Hazlet, and Receptor. While these varieties were the most vigorous in terms of plant growth, they were in return far more susceptible to lodging which further impacted yields for a number of these varieties (below).

Table 4. Cereal rye harvest measurements. Alburgh, VT 2024.

* Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

There were significant differences across varieties for disease, arthropod, and combined foliar damage. Foliar diseases reduce photosynthetic leaf area, deplete plant nutrients, and increase respiration and transpiration within colonized host tissues. The diseased plant typically exhibits reduced vigor, growth, and seed fill, thus impacting grain quality and yields. Earlier occurrence, greater degree of host susceptibility, and longer duration of conditions favorable for disease development will increase the risk of yield loss. Each plot was evaluated for the presence of several individual diseases and disease symptoms. These individual disease ratings were combined into a single foliar disease rating for statistical analysis. Diseases noted in the winter rye variety trial were rust, brown spot, mosaic virus, and powdery mildew (in order from most severe to least). Serafino appeared to be impacted the least by both arthropods and diseases, however minimal foliar damage was observed within the trial overall.

Table 5. Disease and arthropod damage in winter rye varieties. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

* Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

Moisture measurements were recorded at harvest.  The ideal moisture content for grain storage is below 13.5%.  Each variety at this stage of harvest was above the ideal moisture content for storage and required further drying. The ideal test weight for rye is 56 lbs bu^-1; none of the varieties met or exceeded this test weight, however each variety did surpass the 50 lb bu^-1, and was comparable to previous years trial averages in 2022 and 2023. Danko had the highest overall test weight at 53.4 lb bu^-1 and was statistically similar to Bono, Receptor, Serafino, Spooner, and Tayo. Yields were once again lower when compared to peak years (which have exceeded 6000 lbs-ac^-1, likely contributed to by higher overall lodging within the trial. Trial average for the 2024 growing season was 2945 lbs ac^-1 with top yielding variety Tayo reaching 3908 lbs ac^-1. Other top performing varieties included Bono, Danko, Receptor, and Serafino.

Falling number measures viscosity by recording the time in seconds it takes for a plunger to fall through a slurry to the bottom of a test tube. Viscosity is an indicator of enzymatic (alpha-amylase) activity in the kernel, which most often results from pre-harvest sprouting in the grain. Low falling number means high enzymatic activity, or more pre-harvest sprouting damage. This is most common if there are rain events as the grain is maturing prior to harvest. Values for falling number in each of the varieties was fairly high when compared to 2023 which had a number of varieties below 100 seconds. The highest observed falling number was seen in Serafino (322 seconds) with a trial average of 223 seconds.

Table 6. Cereal rye grain quality. Alburgh, VT 2024.

* Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

Wheat with 12% crude protein is generally considered ideal for baking bread; however, it is unclear how protein concentrations in rye impact the baking characteristics. This year’s varieties resulted in a trial mean of  7.00% compared to a 2023 trial average of 8.5% crude protein. Lower protein levels are characteristic of rye. The highest observed value for crude protein was seen in ND Gardener at 8.15%. Starch measurements were also obtained from grain samples with the highest average starch content observed in Serafino at 62.6%, and was statistically similar to Danko and Spooner.

Objective 3: To determine the optimum planting date and seed depth for cereal rye to maximize winter survival and yield/quality. 

2024 Cereal rye planting date by seed depth trial

Within this trial, data for planting date three (PD3, 4-Oct), and planting date six (PD6, 30-Oct) are largely absent. While PD3 was planted with what is typically adequate time for establishment within the growing season, a major rain event occurred 7-Oct through 8-Oct in which over three inches of rain was accumulated during that period. This resulted in soil saturation and wash outs for many of the plots and overall very poor stand establishment. Conversely, PD6 did not have adequate conditions for germination and as such no data is represented for this planting date and associated treatments.

Variety x planting date x seed depth interactions

There were no significant interactions between variety, planting date, and planting depth, indicating that the varieties responded similarly to the various planting date and planting depth treatments. Similarly there were no significant interactions between variety and depth.

Planting date x seed depth interactions

A number of significant interactions were observed within the trial between planting date and seed depth indicating that seed depth treatments had different responses to planting date for the given metrics: winter survival, grain moisture, test weight, and yield (Table 4, Table 5).

Table 4. Rye planting date x planting depth establishment and spring green-up measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

When looking at winter survival, the 1.0” planting depth treatments appeared to surpass those 0.5” and 1.5” treatments in both PD1 and PD2, whereas the last two planting dates the winter survival for the 1.0” depth dropped significantly when compared to the other two. Winter survival for PD3 was also severely impacted by heavy rain events in the fall across all planting depth treatments.

Grain moisture, test weight, and yield had the biggest differences in PD4, with 1.5” and 1.00” and treatments having lowest values for each in this planting date. While grain moisture was fairly consistent for other treatments, values were considerably lower in PD4 which seems to have, in turn, impacted test weight and yield.

Table 5. Rye planting date x planting depth harvest measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Impacts of variety

Varieties Tayo (hybrid) and Hazlet (open pollenated) were chosen as two commonly grown cereal rye varieties that generally perform well across a number of growing regions and also as representatives of the hybrid and open pollenated rye groups. A number of significant differences were observed across varieties within this trial (Tables 6 & 7). No noticeable differences were discerned between the two varieties while collecting fall measurements with each appearing to have similar establishments. Differences became apparent during spring green-up evaluation between winter survival, spring populations, and tiller counts. Hazlet appeared to be the hardier variety between the two with an average winter survival of 56.9%, and populations of 9.30 plants ft^-1.

 Table 6. Rye variety establishment and spring green-up measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level. The top performing treatment is shown in bold.

• NS; no significant differences between treatments.

Several differences were observed between the two varieties at harvest and in grain quality. Hazlet had the greatest average heights (126 cm), however was also more susceptible to lodging when compared to Tayo. Tayo treatments also had the highest yields at 3119 lbs ac^-1, with trial averages for Tayo and Hazlet being comparable to those of the variety trial conducted at Borderview Research Farm. Higher protein levels were observed in Hazlet at 8.23%, whereas Tayo had the higher average falling number at 295 seconds.

Table 7. Rye variety harvest and grain quality measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level. The top performing treatment is shown in bold.

• NS; no significant differences between treatments.

Impacts of planting date

When looking solely at the impacts of planting date on the various metrics, there were a number of significant differences across the five planting date treatments (Tables 8 and 9). Plant establishment in the fall was greatly impacted by weather events as seen in PD3 (4-Oct) in which some of the lowest populations and tiller counts were recorded, comparable to, or lower than, the latter two planting dates. Tillering and ground cover followed a clear declining trend from the first to the last planting date initially showing 35.9% cover at PD1, decreasing to 0.638% by PD5. Those plants in the first planting date also had the greatest number of tillers at 2.84 tillers plant^-1, with the last three planting dates showing significantly diminished tillering. These trends continued throughout the spring green-up period with greatest spring ground cover, winter survival, spring populations, and spring tillers observed in PD1. Spring tillers were statistically similar between PD1 and PD2 at 5.62 and 5.17 tillers plant^-1. Values for each spring metric were lowest in PD3 across the board highlighting the importance not only of planting date but also timing of plantings which can be exacerbated by major weather events. When compared to the 2023 growing season of this trial, similar trends were observed with a decreasing trend from the first to the fifth planting dates for ground cover and populations.

Table 8. Rye variety establishment and spring green-up measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. The top performing treatment is shown in bold.

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

Prior to harvest, heights and lodging were recorded (Table 6). PD3 was not harvested as a result of the poor stand establishment and plants were outcompeted by weeds throughout the growing season after spring measurements were taken. Tallest plants were seen in the first planting date at 124 cm with PD2, PD4, and PD5 all having statistically similar heights at 112, 111, and 115 cm respectively. Grain moisture was generally higher than desired for storage with those from PD1, PD2, and PD5 requiring additional drying (down to 13.5% moisture) to reduce potential for spoilage. Yield and test weight were highest in PD1 at 3411 lbs ac^-1 and 53.2 lbs bu^-1 respectively. Test weights were comparable in PD2 (53.0 lbs bu^-1) and PD5 (51.8 lbs bu^-1). An ideal falling number falls for wheat is between 250 and 300 seconds, however, lower falling numbers around 100-200 seconds have been acceptable to bakers using rye flour. Falling number for all treatments appeared to be within an acceptable range for baking with the highest falling number seen in PD1 at 242 seconds, and was statistically similar to PD2 (222 seconds and PD5 (224 seconds).

Table 9: Rye planting date harvest and grain quality measurements, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly.  The top performing treatment is shown in bold.

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

• NS; no significant differences between treatments.

A strong negative correlation between crude protein and starch (r=-0.97443) was observed across planting dates: an increase in crude protein across planting dates resulted in a decrease in starch concentrations. Additionally, positive correlations were observed between lodging and crude protein (r=0.7248) and between lodging and starch (r=0.9892).

Objective 4: To determine the impact of nitrogen management on cereal rye yield and end-use quality.

2024 Rye nitrogen fertility trial

Variety x fertility application interactions

There were no significant interactions between variety and fertility applications, indicating that the varieties responded similarly to the various fertility treatments.

Impacts of fertility applications

Table 4 displays field and harvest measurements. Some differences were observed in spring ground cover with the highest coverage seen in the 45-45 lbs N ac^-1 split application treatment at 79.07% and was statistically similar to both the spring and fall applications of 90 lbs N ac^-1. Heights and lodging measurements were collected within the trial prior to harvest. All treatments receiving additional nitrogen applications had higher levels of lodging with the highest seen in the split application and the spring application at 78.1% lodging each. Conversely, the control receiving no supplemental nitrogen had the lowest overall lodging at 33.6%, despite having the tallest plants within the trial at 140cm.

Table 4. Rye nitrogen fertility establishment and harvest measurements, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. 

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

• NS; no significant differences between treatments.

Significant differences in nitrogen treatments were observed in moisture, test weight, crude protein, starch, and falling number (Table 5). Ideal grain storage moisture is around 13.5% and all treatments would need to be further dried down to reduce potential crop loss. All grain tested below 14% with lowest observed moisture seen in the 90 lbs N ac^-1 spring applied treatment at 13.0%, which was statistically similar to the split nitrogen application at 13.4%, both below the ideal moisture for storage. The ideal test weight for rye is 56 lbs bu^-1; the only treatment meeting this standard was the 45-45 lbs N ac^-1 split application treatment at 56.5 lbs bu^-1 but was statistically similar to the 90 lbs N ac^-1 fall applied treatment at 55.3 lbs bu^-1. Yields did not appear to be impacted by nitrogen treatments with a trial average of 5201 lbs ac^-1, and highest yields seen in the split nitrogen application treatment at 5543 lbs ac^-1.

Table 5. Rye nitrogen fertility harvest and quality measurements, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. 

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

• NS; no significant differences between treatments.

The four nitrogen treatments were also analyzed for crude protein and starch concentrations, adjusted for 12% moisture, falling number, and DON concentrations (Table 5). Quality of cereal rye for crude protein, starch and falling number all appeared to be significantly influenced by fertility applications within this trial. All treatments receiving supplemental nitrogen had significantly higher levels of crude protein when compared to the control, with the highest observed value seen in the 90 lbs N ac^-1 spring applied treatment. Conversely, the control treatment had the highest values for both starch and falling number at 62.2% and 216 seconds respectively. An ideal falling number falls for wheat is between 250 and 300 seconds, however, lower falling numbers around 100-200 seconds have been acceptable to bakers using rye flour. Falling number for all treatments appeared to be within an acceptable range for baking. One replication of the study was evaluated for DON levels, with no treatments exceeding the 1 ppm threshold considered safe for human consumption.

Objective 5: To determine the impact of harvest date and variety on end-use quality.

Seasonal precipitation and temperature recorded at Borderview Research Farm in Alburgh, VT are displayed in Table 8.  The fall of 2021 was slightly warmer and wetter than normal from September through November. The temperature was 3.03 degrees warmer than normal and there was 2.78 inches of precipitation more than average. This allowed for good germination and establishment of the winter rye. The spring and summer of 2022 continued to be wetter, although slightly cooler than average. In total during the rye growing season, there was over 40 inches of precipitation – 9.43 inches more than average. A total of 6739 growing degree days (GDD’s) accumulated – 131 more than average.

Table 8. Temperature and precipitation summary for Alburgh, VT, 2021-2022 growing season.

Based on weather data from a Davis Instruments Vantage Pro2 with WeatherLink data logger. Historical averages are for 30 years of NOAA data (1981-2010) from Burlington, VT. (http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/page_nowdata.html).

Impact of Harvest Date

Yield, harvest moisture, and test weight were measured at the time of harvest (Table 9). Yields were high across the trial, with the highest yield on HD1 (20-Jul) at 6639 lbs ac^-1.  Yield declined steadily through the harvest season and yield from the first harvest date was significantly different from all other dates. Harvest moisture varied across the study period with highest harvest moisture occurring at the first harvest date and lowest occurring at the second harvest date. The moisture content at the second date was statistically dissimilar from the other dates and was the only harvest date when the moisture was below 14% and did not require additional drying down for storage. Test weight was highest in HD2 (29-Jul) at 53.7 lbs bu^-1 with no other harvest dates statistically similar.

Table 9. Harvest data and grain quality for winter rye harvest dates, Alburgh, VT, 2022.

†Within a column, harvest dates with the same letter were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD - least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

^¥NS – No significant differences.

Crude protein varied very little across harvest dates, although the later harvest dates were statistically different from the earlier ones. Protein for all harvest dates was below the desired range for ideal rye baking quality (<8%). There was no statistical difference in starch content and all harvest dates had starch within the acceptable range for rye flour. Falling number was highest at the 3^rd harvest date and lowest at the 4^th harvest date, disrupting a trend observed in previous years of the study when falling number declined as the study proceeded. While more research is underway to confirm ideal falling numbers for rye, preliminary research seems to put this value between 150-200 seconds. The first three harvest dates all had falling number above this range and the final harvest date had falling number below.

Impact of Variety

The varieties varied significantly in terms of all parameters measured. The highest yielding variety across the four harvest dates was Serafino at 7042 lbs bu^-1 (Table 10). This was statistically similar to Bono at 6926 lbs bu^-1. Rye yields were very high across all the rye trials at Borderview Research farm in 2022. Harvest moisture varied significantly between varieties but on average all were above moisture content required for long term storage. Serafino had the highest test weight at 52.2 lbs bu^-1, and was statistically similar to all other varieties.

Table 10. Harvest data and grain quality for winter rye varieties, Alburgh, VT, 2022.

†Within a column, harvest dates with the same letter were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD - least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

^¥NS – No significant differences.

Serafino also had the highest starch at 63.1%, statistically similar to Bono at 62.9%. All varieties had acceptable starch content. Hazlet had the highest protein concentrations at 6.92%, statistically similar to Danko at 6.91%. Averaged across the four harvest dates, Hazlet had a significantly lower falling number compared to all other varieties.

Harvest date x variety interactions

There were no statistically significant harvest date x variety interactions for yield, test weight, starch, protein, and falling number; in other words, both varieties performed similarly at each harvest date in terms of these characteristics. The only statistically significant effect of harvest date by variety was in terms of harvest moisture and variety. For each harvest date, a different variety had the lowest moisture content.

Falling number

Falling number measures viscosity by recording the time in seconds it takes for a plunger to fall through a slurry to the bottom of a test tube. The viscosity is an indicator of enzymatic (alpha-amylase) activity in the kernel, which most often results from the early stages of germination occurring pre-harvest in the grain. Low falling number means high enzymatic activity, or more pre-harvest sprouting. This is most common if there are rain events as the grain is ripening prior to harvest.  Falling number is a widely understood indicator of wheat flour quality, though its use as an indicator of rye flour quality is still being explored.  Low falling number in wheat, below 250, has a negative impact on bread quality and can lead to lower prices paid for the wheat or possible rejection at the mill.  The ideal range for wheat is 250-350.  High falling numbers, over 400 seconds, can potentially lead to slower fermentation, poorer loaf volume and drier bread texture, depending on the end product. Because rye bread relies on different grain components to create high-quality bread, and ferments more quickly than wheat, it is expected that lower falling numbers are preferred for rye than for wheat, likely between 150-200 seconds and potentially as low as 100 seconds. For rye in particular, waiting longer to harvest may result in grains that are more suited for baking as currently, as lower falling numbers are more desirable than those needed for wheat.   

2023 Trial

Impact of Harvest Date

Yield was measured at the time of harvest (Table 11). Yields were highest at HD4 on 11-Aug at 4430 lbs ac^-1.  This was statistically similar to yields from HD1 and HD2. The lowest yield was HD3 with 3597 lbs ac^-1. The highest protein was 6.87% (adjusted to 12% moisture content) on HD3. The other harvest dates ranged from 6.53-6.58% protein. HD3 also produced the rye with the highest starch concentrations at 63.3% (also adjusted to 12% moisture content). The other harvest dates ranged from 63.0-63.3%. Falling number declined steadily over the harvest dates. The highest falling number was on HD1 at 249 seconds, declining to 165 seconds by the second harvest date, 146 seconds by the third, and 89 seconds on the fourth harvest date.

 Table 11. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye harvest dates, Alburgh, VT, 2023.

†Within a column, treatments with the same letter were not statistically different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

Impact of Variety

The highest yielding variety across harvest dates was Bono, with 4855 lbs ac^-1. This was statistically similar to Serafino with 4407 lbs ac^-1. Hazlet had the highest concentrations of protein at 7.19%, statistically dissimilar from the other varieties (Table 12). Serafino had the highest starch concentrations at 63.31%, similar to Bono and Danko. Danko had the lowest falling number averaged across the four harvest dates at 105 seconds. This was statistically similar to Danko with a falling number of 130 seconds.

Table 12. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye varieties, Alburgh, VT, 2023.

†Within a column, treatments with the same letter were not statistically different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 Harvest date x variety interactions

There were no statistically significant harvest date x variety interactions; in other words, all varieties performed similarly at each harvest date.

Falling number

Falling number measures viscosity by recording the time in seconds it takes for a plunger to fall through a slurry to the bottom of a test tube.  The viscosity is an indicator of enzymatic (alpha-amylase) activity in the kernel, which most often results from pre-harvest sprouting in the grain.  Low falling number means high enzymatic activity, or more pre-harvest sprouting damage.  This is most common if there are rain events as the grain is ripening prior to harvest.  Falling number is a widely understood indicator of wheat flour quality, though its use as an indicator of rye flour quality is less understood.  Low falling number in wheat, below 250, has a negative impact on bread quality and can lead to lower prices paid for the wheat or possible rejection at the mill.  The ideal range for wheat is 250-350.  High falling numbers, over 400 seconds, can potentially lead to slower fermentation, poorer loaf volume and drier bread texture, depending on the end product although effects of high falling number can be mitigated by addition of malt extract. Because rye bread relies on different grain components to create high-quality bread, and ferments more quickly than wheat, it is expected that lower falling numbers are preferred for rye than for wheat, likely lower than 200 seconds and potentially as low as 100 seconds. For rye in particular, waiting longer to harvest may result in grains that are more suited for baking as currently, bakers seem to desire lower falling numbers than are needed for wheat. Rye from the 2022-2023 harvest date trial was too high in DON concentrations to be used in bake tests to test for effects of falling number on baking quality.

2024 Cereal rye harvest date trial

Impact of Harvest Date

Yield was measured at the time of each harvest date (Table 3). Yields were highest at HD1 (19-Jul) at 5471 lbs ac^-1.  This was statistically similar to HD2 and HD3. The lowest yield was HD4 with 1992 lbs ac^-1. The highest protein was 7.68% (adjusted to 12% moisture content) on HD3. The other harvest dates ranged from 6.97-7.12% protein. HD4 also produced the rye with the highest starch concentrations at 62.3% (adjusted to 12% moisture content). The other harvest dates ranged from 61.6-62.1%. The average falling number declined steadily over the harvest dates. The highest falling number was on HD1 at 225 seconds average, falling to 209 seconds by the second harvest date, 179 seconds by the third, and 105 seconds on the fourth harvest date.

Table 3. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye harvest dates, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. 

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

Impact of Variety

The highest yielding variety across harvest dates was Danko, with 4819 lbs ac^-1. This was statistically similar to Bono and Serafino. Hazlet had the highest concentration of protein at 7.54%, statistically higher than all other varieties. Bono and Danko were tied for the highest starch concentrations at 62.1%, similar to Serafino. Hazlet had the lowest falling number averaged across the four harvest dates at 158 seconds. This was statistically similar to Danko with a falling number of 167 seconds.

Table 4. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye varieties, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. 

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

Harvest date x variety interactions

There were several significant variety x harvest date interactions(Table 5; 6)  including for lodging (Figure 1), test weight (Figure 2), yield (Figure 3), protein (Figure 4), starch and falling number (Figure 5).

Table 5. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye varieties, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

† NS; Not statistically significant

Patterns in lodging had little similarity across varieties, but they were all high on the final harvest date (Figure 3). Hazlet had high lodging throughout the trial even at the first harvest date. Serafino’s lodging increased steadily as it sat in the field. Danko had a marked increase in lodging between HD 2 and HD3, with similar lodging rates in the first and last two harvest dates. Bono had a slight increase in lodging after the first harvest date and a marked increase after the third harvest date.

Test weight had the biggest differences between varieties on HD1, with Bono having the highest and Serafino the lowest. Bono declined in test weight over the first three harvest dates but on the final harvest date had test weight similar to the test weight on HD2. On the final harvest date, Hazlet had much lower test weight than the rest on (Figure 2).

Yield had the biggest differences on HD1 and HD2, and they all decreased by HD4 due to lodging (Table 6, Figure 3). Yields for Danko and Hazlet declined on HD2, unlike Bono and Serafino which stayed relatively consistent from HD1 to HD2 and declined over the last two harvest dates. For starch, all varieties performed similarly except for Hazlet, which was lower than the rest on HD2 and HD4.

Table 6. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye varieties, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Protein concentrations for the varieties showed a similar pattern for three varieties (Serafino, Danko and Bono) with a slight decrease in protein between the first and second harvest dates, higher protein on the third harvest date, and lower protein again on HD4. Hazlet had higher protein on HD2, a very small decrease in protein on HD 3, and an increase in protein on HD4 (Figure 4). Bono and Serafino showed similar reactions to harvest date in terms of falling number, with slightly higher falling number on the second harvest date but declining steadily on harvest dates 3 and 4 (Figure 5). Danko and Hazlet had falling numbers that fell on HD 2, rose or stayed steady on HD3, and declined precipitously on HD 4.

2023 Rye cover crop and forage variety trial

Seasonal precipitation and temperature recorded at Borderview Research Farm in Alburgh, VT are displayed in Table 3. The average fall temperature (Sep 2022 to Nov 2022) was 51.0° F, which was   0.68°F warmer than the 30-year normal. The average temperature from Mar 2023 to Jun 2023 was 0.27° F warmer than the 30-year normal. This growing season was wetter than past years with a total precipitation of 24.1 inches from Mar 2023 to Jul 2023. The accumulated Growing Degree Days (GDDs) were fairly similar to the 30-year average during this period experiencing 171 GDDs less than the 30-year average.

Table 3. Weather data for rye variety trial in Alburgh, VT.

Based on weather data from a Davis Instruments Vantage Pro2 with WeatherLink data logger. Historical averages are for 30 years of NOAA data (1991-2020) for Burlington, VT.

Ground cover measurements were taken using the Canopeo application in the fall after plant establishment and again in the spring. Fall ground cover measurements were taken as an indicator of stand establishment and plant vigor. Within the trial, Danko showed the highest percentage of ground cover prior to hard frost in November 2022 with 73.5% cover and was statistically similar to Bono, Covermax, Hazlet, ND Dylan, Spooner, Tayo and VNS. Similarly, spring ground cover measurements showed that most varieties had good survivability throughout the winter going into the spring green-up period with Spooner having the highest percentage of cover at 73.4%. ND Gardner, Progas, and Serafino appeared to have the lowest percentage of cover and overall vigor during these evaluation periods. Those varieties that had the highest fall ground cover also tended to have the best spring cover too. Interestingly, Progas is a forage specific variety that did have some of the highest forage yields but also had the lowest fall and spring cover. This leads to more questions regarding best dual purpose rye varieties for both optimizing conservation goals and forage production.

Table 4. Winter rye ground cover, Alburgh, VT, 2022-2023.

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

Rye forage and straw yields were collected at three key periods throughout the 2023 growing season: spring green-up, boot stage, and flowering (Table 5). Dry matter yields were high across all varieties during this period with Spooner having the highest yields at 3651 lbs ac^-1. Serafino was the only variety at this period (in addition to boot and flowering stage) that did not perform similarly to other top yielding varieties. Danko produced the highest yields at boot stage at 6,063 lbs ac^-1 and was statistically similar to Bono, Covermax, Hazlet, ND Dylan, ND Gardner, Progas, Spooner, and VNS rye. Highest yields at flowering stage were seen with Covermax at 12,215 lbs ac^-1 and was statistically similar to Aroostook, Bono, Danko, Hazlet, ND Dylan, Progas, Spooner and the VNS rye. Each of these would be suitable for roller crimping and provide good ground cover in addition to producing high amounts of straw.

Table 5. Winter rye dry matter and yields at spring green-up, boot, and flowering growth stages, Alburgh, VT 2023.

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

Forage quality was analyzed for each rye sample at boot stage as this would be indicative of the optimum period for quality and yields (Table 6). Each of these varieties reached boot stage between 9-May and 18-May 2023. Highest observed crude protein concentrations were seen in Aroostook at 15.37% and was statistically similar to Covermax, Hazlet, ND Dylan, Serafino, Spooner, and Tayo. When looking at forage quality, no significant differences were observed in Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF). Conversely, differences in rye varieties were observed in amylase Neutral Detergent Fiber organic matter (aNDFom) and Neutral Detergent Fiber Digestibility 30hr (NDFDom30). NDFDom30 indicates the percentage of NDF digested in 30 hours of fermentation, whereas the NDFDom30 yields are indicative of the total amount of feed that would be fermentable during this 30-hour period. All of the varieties within the trial were of good quality for NDFDom30 when compared to other forages with those with highest percentage of digestible fibers seen in Aroostook at 76.80% and was statistically similar to Covermax, Hazlet, ND Dylan, Serafino, and Spooner. NDFDom30 yields show a uniform digestible fiber yields were highest for ND Dylan at 2,710 lbs ac^-1 and was statistically similar to Bono, Covermax, Danko, and Hazlet.

Table 6. Winter rye forage quality at plant boot stage. Alburgh, VT 2023

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

• NS-No significant difference between treatments.