Capturing Value with Cereal Rye: Growing High Quality Rye in the Northeast for Value-Added Markets

Objective 1: Determine the demand and market requirements for cereal rye across a variety of sectors. 

These were our main findings:

Growers (N=26)

• Producers are reluctant to expand production unless they are sure of a market.
• The main market for cereal rye was seed, with much of it grown as a cover crop in the Northeast.
• Yield was a major concern in the focus group.
• Top concerns other than yield included access to organic seed, germination rate, pathogens and mycotoxins, and flavor.
• Most producers sold through multiple channels for several different end uses.
• Lack of market and low prices were common complaints in both the survey and focus group.
• About a third were unable to sell all the rye that they grew.
• Specifications for food-grade and distilling markets were not always consistent or readily known.

Distillers and Maltsters (N=32)

• Demand was not being met for several value-added products, particularly distilled spirits.
• Flavor was the top concern for both groups.
• Sourcing grain from local or in-state farms was the second biggest priority for distillers.
• Maltsters required a high germination rate, not a concern for distillers.
• Supply chains were short, with most buying directly from farmers.
• Purchases were evenly split between pre-season contracts and informal agreements / spot market.
• Storage capacity was a limiting factor.

Millers and Bakers (N=26)

• Baking results were unpredictable and varied widely depending on the variety and other factors.
• Bakers were not always clear on which quality parameters to look for and which values differentiate high quality from low quality rye.
• Wary of purchasing Variety Not Specified (VNS) rye.
• A few operations were vertically integrated from field to table, growing to baking.
• Several noted that rye was more difficult to mill than wheat.

Seed Dealers (N=17)

• Other than yield, germination is their top concern, followed by cleanliness and certified organic status.
• Most likely to have pre-season contracts with producers.
• Much of what is grown is sold for cover crop seed.
• All but one was able to get all the rye seed needed.
• Many incentive programs may be responsible for driving up demand for rye seed for use as cover crops.
• Rye seed is currently more expensive than wheat (Fall 2023).

Cleaners, Aggregators (N=15)

• Cleanliness and germination rate were their top concerns.
• Ergot and vomitoxin
• Most have their product milled into flour.
• Rye flakes and cracked rye products were noted to require very clean grain.

Feed Millers (N=9)

• Top concern was protein content, cited by 64%.
• Organic status, pathogens, and cleanliness.
• Respondents cited ergot and DON as specific concerns by a third of respondents.
• Livestock producers grow rye in rotation and mill for their own herds.
• Eight out of eleven respondents grew their own rye.
• Cereal rye can also be grown as a forage crop in pastures.
• Producers expressed Interest in rye for animal feed.

The Takeaway

• Clear opportunities were identified to expand production of rye for seed and for value-added markets.
• Distilling and baking appeared to offer the most demand for value-added products.
• Distillers, flour millers, and bakers wanted to know which varieties are the most flavorful, offering opportunities for plant breeders and sensory researchers.
• There was a need to better understand functional attributes of different varieties, and between hybrid and open pollinated varieties.
• Millers were not always clear on which quality parameters were important to their bakers and can experience variation in end-products by variety or growing year even if lab analyses appear similar. There is an opportunity for further research to better understand quality attributes for baking.
• Value-added markets such as distilling and baking required cleaner grain and better quality, but were not necessarily willing to pay farmers enough of a premium to give them an incentive to produce
• The value chain relied mostly on informal agreements and the spot market.
• Cereal rye offered several agronomic benefits in weed suppression, breaking host cycles for pests and diseases, and fitting as a suitable winter small grain for the Northeast region.
• Rye can be planted as a cover crop to add organic matter, reduce erosion, and can be both planted as and followed by disking or as a no-till crop without herbicides through the use of a roller-crimper..
• Rye was viewed as being versatile and allowed for flexibility in marketing and on-farm end uses.

Results from Field Trials

Weather Data

The fall of 2022 had average weather in terms of precipitation and temperature. The main growing season in the spring and summer of 2023 was slightly cooler than average and much wetter (Table 20). Over 28 inches of rain fell from April through July, 9.65 inches more than normal. A total of 6503 growing degree days (GDDs) accumulated over the fall of 2022 and spring and summer of 2023, 32 GDDs more than normal.

 Table 20. Temperature and precipitation summary for Alburgh, VT, 2022 and 2023 growing season.

Alburgh, VT	22-Sep	22-Oct	22-Nov	23-Apr	23-May	23-Jun	23-Jul	23-Aug
Average temperature (°F)	60.2	51.3	41.5	48.3	57.1	65.7	72.2	67.0
Departure from normal	-2.52	0.96	2.24	2.70	-1.28	-1.76	-0.24	-3.73
Precipitation (inches)	4.40	2.56	3.01	4.94	1.98	4.40	10.8	6.27
Departure from normal	0.73	-1.27	0.31	1.87	-1.78	0.14	6.69	2.73
Growing Degree Days (base 32°F)	861	607	346	524	766	1027	1274	1098
Departure from normal	-61	39	111	112	-53	-37	22	-101

Based on weather data from a Davis Instruments Vantage Pro2 with WeatherLink data logger. Historical averages are for 30 years of NOAA data (1981-2010) from Burlington, VT. (http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/page_nowdata.html).

The weather in the fall of 2023 had close to average precipitation and temperature. The main growing season in the spring and summer of 2024 was warmer than average and wetter Table 21). A total of 28.1 inches of rain fell from April through July, 4.91 inches more than normal. A total of 6661 growing degree days (GDDs) accumulated over the fall of 2023 and spring and summer of 2024, 190 GDDs more than normal.

 

Table 21. Temperature and precipitation summary for Alburgh, VT, 2023 and 2024 growing season.

Alburgh, VT	23-Sep	23-Oct	23-Nov	24-Apr	24-May	24-Jun	24-Jul	24-Aug
Average temperature (°F)	64.7	54.9	35.9	45.7	61.9	68.5	73.7	69.2
Departure from normal	1.97	4.63	-3.39	0.13	3.47	0.95	1.33	-1.45
Precipitation (inches)	2.40	5.38	2.03	4.47	2.27	6.65	6.67	5.78
Departure from normal	-1.27	1.55	-0.67	1.40	-1.49	2.39	2.61	2.24
Growing Degree Days (base 32°F)	980	711	175	327	926	1093	1294	1155
Departure from normal	58	143	-60	-84	108	29	41	-45

Based on weather data from a Davis Instruments Vantage Pro2 with WeatherLink data logger. Historical averages are for 30 years of NOAA data (1981-2010) from Burlington, VT. (http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/page_nowdata.html).

Seasonal precipitation and temperature recorded at Borderview Research Farm in Alburgh, VT are displayed in Table 22 for 2024 and 2025. Fall temperatures at establishment through November were 6.76° F warmer than average leading to strong winter survival for nearly all rye varieties. Unlike the previous two growing seasons, we saw significantly less precipitation leading up to harvest and for the bulk of the growing season. While May was above average for precipitation during the earlier parts of the month, this trend shifted during June with the month ending in 1.88 inches less precipitation than the 30-year average. The average temperature during the primary growing season was 6.53° F above average with cumulative Growing Degree Days (GDDs) reaching 5384, 112 above average.

 Table 22. Seasonal weather data collected in Alburgh, VT, 2024-2025.

Alburgh, VT	24-Sep	24-Oct	24-Nov	25-Apr	25-May	25-Jun	25-Jul
Average temperature (°F)	64.7	52.1	42.2	45.1	57.5	67.8	73.2
Departure from normal	2.02	1.81	2.93	-0.47	-0.93	0.35	0.82
Precipitation (inches)	2.61	2.00	1.75	3.71	5.78	2.38	3.76
Departure from normal	-1.06	-1.83	-0.95	0.64	2.02	-1.88	-0.3
Growing Degree Days (32-90°F)	981	628	328	297	790	1084	1276
Departure from normal	59	60	92	-115	-29	21	24

Historical averages are for 30 years of data provided by the NOAA (1991-2020) for Burlington, VT.

 

Objective 2: To determine which cereal rye varieties are most appropriate for grain end-uses 

2023 Rye Variety Evaluation Trial

There were significant differences across all harvest and quality measurements taken within the trial (Tables 23 and 24). The tallest variety within the trial was VNS at 173 cm and was statistically similar to Aroostook, ND Gardner, and Spooner with the shortest variety, Bono, reaching only 122cm. Lodging across a number of varieties was high, largely as a result of weather conditions leading up to harvest, however a few appeared to be significantly less impacted by growing conditions, holding up better in the field. Danko, Progas, and Serafino showed only 1.67% lodging in the trial and were comparable to Bono, Covermax, Hazlet, and Tayo. The ideal moisture content for grain storage is below 13.5%.  Moisture measurements were recorded at harvest. Progas was harvested at an ideal moisture (13.1%) and was statistically similar to Spooner, Serafino, ND Dylan, and Covermax, which all remained below or close to the 13.5% mark. The ideal test weight for rye is 56 lbs bu^-1; none of the varieties met or exceeded this test weight, however the majority did surpass the 50 lb bu^-1, which was comparable to values observed in 2022 (52.4 lbs bu^-1 trial average) and far exceeding those in 2021 which had a trial average of 40 lbs bu^-1. Across all varieties, yields were significantly lower than past years once again likely to have been impacted by the excessive amounts of rain seen in the month of July leading up to harvest. While Tayo appeared to yield well (5505 lbs ac^-1), no other variety showed comparable yields this year with a trial average of 3628 lbs ac^-1. The 2022 growing season showed significantly higher yields with a trial mean of 6749 lbs ac^-1.

Table 23. Cereal rye harvest measurements. Alburgh, VT 2023.

Variety	Height	Lodging	Moisture	Test weight	Yield @ 13.5% moisture
	cm	%	%	lbs bu-1	lbs ac-1
Aroostook	166*†	70.0	14.3	50.8*	3070
Bono	122	31.7*	14.4	53.0*	4163
Covermax	137	8.33*	13.4*	52.0*	3906
Danko	141	1.67	14.0	54.4	3566
Hazlet	147	31.7*	14.2	53.2*	3421
ND Dylan	145	61.7	13.6*	50.7*	3324
ND Gardner	161*	70.0	15.2	50.1	3160
Progas	136	1.67	13.1	48.9	3887
Ruth's VNS	173	65.0	14.2	48.1	2881
Serafino	125	1.67	13.8*	52.0*	3305
Spooner	161*	63.3	13.5*	52.0*	3353
Tayo	125	35.0*	14.7	50.7*	5505
LSD (p=0.10) ‡	14.2	45.3	0.866	2.6	880
Trial Mean	145	36.8	14.0	51.3	3628

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 Wheat with 12% crude protein is generally considered ideal for baking bread; however, it is unclear how protein concentrations in rye impact the baking characteristics. This year’s varieties resulted in a trial mean of 8.5% crude protein. Lower protein levels are characteristic of rye. Those highest observed values were seen in Aroostook at 10.6% and was statistically similar to VNS at 10.1%. Starch measurements were also obtained from grain samples with the highest average starch content observed in Covermax at 62.4%, and was statistically similar to Bono, Danko, Hazlet, Serafino, and Tayo. Falling number measures viscosity by recording the time in seconds it takes for a plunger to fall through a slurry to the bottom of a test tube. The viscosity is an indicator of enzymatic (alpha-amylase) activity in the kernel, which most often results from pre-harvest sprouting in the grain. Low falling number means high enzymatic activity, or more pre-harvest sprouting damage. This is most common if there are rain events as the grain is maturing prior to harvest. Hazlet, ND Dylan, VNS, and Spooner had falling number values below 100 seconds, and likely experienced in-field sprouting damage as a result of growing conditions. Within the 2023 variety trial, Serafino stood alone showing the highest overall falling number at 255 seconds. Overall, the average falling number for the trial was 131 seconds. Aroostook had the lowest concentration of DON within the trial at 0.3 ppm and was statistically similar to Danko (0.6 ppm), and Spooner (0.7 ppm).

Table 24. Cereal rye grain quality. Alburgh, VT 2023.

Variety	Crude protein @12% moisture	Starch @ 12% moisture	Falling Number	DON
	%	%	seconds	ppm
Aroostook	10.6	59.3	118	0.30
Bono	7.30	62.2*	175	1.10
Covermax	7.50	62.4	176	1.60
Danko	7.70	62.2*	135	0.60*
Hazlet	8.30	62.0*	78.0	1.10
ND Dylan	9.00	60.9	81.0	1.40
ND Gardner	9.40	60.2	85.0	0.90
Progas	8.80	61.5	152	1.30
VNS	10.1* †	59.8	63.0	1.30
Serafino	7.80	62.1*	255	0.90
Spooner	8.70	61.9	74.0	0.70*
Tayo	7.20	62.1*	178	1.80
LSD (p=0.10) ‡	0.495	0.466	41.9	0.438
Trial Mean	8.50	61.4	131	1.10

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

2024 Rye Variety Evaluation Trial

There were significant differences among varieties for winter survival, vigor, height, and lodging (Table 25). Each plot of Rymin within the study showed 100% winterkill and, as such, is not further included in the remainder of the report. Otherwise the majority of varieties had 100% winter survival, or were statistically similar to those with 100% survival, with the exception of Bono, which averaged 72.5% survival within the trial. To further distinguish between varieties and assess overall plant health at spring green-up, a vigor rating was given to each plot. Those varieties with higher values showed dark green, healthy plant growth with little to no leaf damage as a result of winter kill or disease. Plant vigor was highest with ND Gardener and Spooner rating 8.5 on the vigor scale, with the lowest being Bono, rating 4.25. These two most vigorous varieties in the spring were also the two outliers for average plant height with the tallest plants observed in Spooner at 172 cm, and ND Gardener at 168 cm. As a result of weather conditions and the overall plant vigor, these were two of the more susceptible varieties to lodging in addition to Aroostook, Hazlet, and Receptor. While these varieties were the most vigorous in terms of plant growth, they were in return far more susceptible to lodging which further impacted yields for a number of these varieties.

Table 25. Cereal rye harvest measurements. Alburgh, VT 2024.

Variety	Winter survival	Vigor	Height	Lodging
	%	0-9	cm	%
Aroostook	97.5*†	7.75*	152	48.8
Bono	72.5	4.25	121	1.25
Danko	100	7.75*	144	27.5*
Hazlet	97.5*	7.00	154	62.5
ND Gardener	97.5*	8.50	168*	81.3
Receptor	100	7.00	132	45.0
Serafino	100	7.25	133	10.0*
Spooner	100	8.50	172	43.8
Tayo	100	7.25	127	2.50*
LSD (0.10) ‡	7.36	1.03	6.35	27.0
Trial mean	96.1	7.25	145	35.8

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

There were significant differences across varieties for disease, arthropod, and combined foliar damage (Table 26). Foliar diseases reduce photosynthetic leaf area, deplete plant nutrients, and increase respiration and transpiration within colonized host tissues. The diseased plant typically exhibits reduced vigor, growth, and seed fill, thus impacting grain quality and yields. Earlier occurrence, greater degree of host susceptibility, and longer duration of conditions favorable for disease development will increase the risk of yield loss. Each plot was evaluated for the presence of several individual diseases and disease symptoms. These individual disease ratings were combined into a single foliar disease rating for statistical analysis. Diseases noted in the winter rye variety trial were rust, brown spot, mosaic virus, and powdery mildew (in order from most severe to least). Serafino appeared to be impacted the least by both arthropods and diseases, however minimal foliar damage was observed within the trial overall.

Table 26. Disease and arthropod damage in winter rye varieties. Alburgh, VT, 2024. 

Variety	Disease damage	Arthropod damage	Combined foliar damage
	% foliar surface affected
Aroostook	8.60	0.800*†	11.6
Bono	2.80*	0.333*	3.53*
Danko	4.40*	0.533*	7.60
Hazlet	4.47*	0.400*	5.47*
ND Gardener	6.67	0.467*	9.53
Receptor	2.20*	0.933	5.27*
Serafino	0.867	0.267	1.20
Spooner	3.80*	1.20	6.53
Tayo	1.00*	0.467*	1.53*
LSD (0.10) ‡	0.264	0.638	4.56
Trial mean	3.87	0.600	5.81

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

Yield and quality differed among rye varieties in 2024 (Table 27). Moisture measurements were recorded at harvest.  The ideal moisture content for grain storage is below 13.5%.  Each variety at this stage of harvest was above the ideal moisture content for storage and required further drying. The ideal test weight for rye is 56 lbs bu^-1; none of the varieties met or exceeded this test weight, however each variety did surpass the 50 lb bu^-1, and was comparable to previous years trial averages in 2022 and 2023. Danko had the highest overall test weight at 53.4 lb bu^-1 and was statistically similar to Bono, Receptor, Serafino, Spooner, and Tayo. Yields were once again lower when compared to peak years (which have exceeded 6000 lbs-ac^-1, likely contributed to by higher overall lodging within the trial. Trial average for the 2024 growing season was 2945 lbs ac^-1 with top yielding variety Tayo reaching 3908 lbs ac^-1. Other top performing varieties included Bono, Danko, Receptor, and Serafino. Falling number measures viscosity by recording the time in seconds it takes for a plunger to fall through a slurry to the bottom of a test tube. Viscosity is an indicator of enzymatic (alpha-amylase) activity in the kernel, which most often results from pre-harvest sprouting in the grain. Low falling number means high enzymatic activity, or more pre-harvest sprouting damage. This is most common if there are rain events as the grain is maturing prior to harvest. Values for falling number in each of the varieties was fairly high when compared to 2023 which had a number of varieties below 100 seconds. The highest observed falling number was seen in Serafino (322 seconds) with a trial average of 223 seconds.

Varieties analyzed for predicted spirit yield (PSY) and soluble extract (SE) across two years of rye variety trials included Aroostook, Bono, Danko, Hazlet, and Spooner. Soluble extract was highest in Danko at 77.4% and was statistically similar to Bono at 77.1%. Predicted spirit yield (PSY) was highest in Bono at 370 LAA tonne^-1 and was statistically similar to Danko (369) and Hazlet (368), with a two-year trial average of 366 LAA tonne^-1. Crude protein had a negative correlation with PSY  (r= -0.74725) across analyzed varieties. As crude protein concentrations increased in rye varieties, PSY decreased. This is largely impacted by starch concentrations which show a similar negative correlation with protein content, in turn impacting potential fermentable sugars for ethanol production. Overall, it does appear that their are varietal differences in spirit yield performance. Further investigation is needed. 

Table 27. Cereal rye grain quality. Alburgh, VT 2024.

Variety	Moisture	Test weight	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Crude protein @ 12% moisture	Starch @ 12% moisture	Falling number
	%	lbs bu-1	lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds
Aroostook	16.7	51.5	2281	7.13	62.2	160
Bono	16.5	52.8*†	3187*	6.98	62.1	276
Danko	16.4	53.4	3199*	6.79	62.5*	210
Hazlet	18.4	50.9	2379	7.14	62.1	159
ND Gardener	19.6	50.3	1951	8.15	60.8	162
Receptor	17.3	52.3*	3666*	6.59	62.2	280
Serafino	16.5	53.1*	3880*	6.51	62.6	322
Spooner	17.4	52.2*	2054	7.20	62.6*	159
Tayo	15.9	52.2*	3908	6.47	62.3	278
LSD (0.10) ‡	1.24	1.29	936.9	0.352	0.264	31.7
Trial mean	17.2	52.1	2945	7.00	62.2	223

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 Wheat with 12% crude protein is generally considered ideal for baking bread; however, it is unclear how protein concentrations in rye impact the baking characteristics. This year’s varieties resulted in a trial mean of  7.00% compared to a 2023 trial average of 8.5% crude protein. Lower protein levels are characteristic of rye. The highest observed value for crude protein was seen in ND Gardener at 8.15%. Starch measurements were also obtained from grain samples with the highest average starch content observed in Serafino at 62.6%, and was statistically similar to Danko and Spooner.

2025 Rye Grain Variety Evaluation Trial

There were significant differences among varieties for winter survival, vigor, height, and lodging (Table 28). The majority of varieties had 100% winter survival, or were statistically similar to those with 100% survival, with the exception of Tayo, which averaged 45.0% survival within the trial and ND Dylan at 87.5%. To further distinguish between varieties and assess overall plant health at spring green-up, a vigor rating was given to each plot. Those varieties with higher values showed dark green, healthy plant growth with little to no leaf damage as a result of winter kill or disease. Plant vigor was highest with ND Gardener at a rating of 9.0 and was statistically similar to Aroostook, Aviator, Danko, and Hazlet at 8.75 each (vigor scale 0-9 with 0=low vigor and 9=excellent vigor). Aroostook was the tallest variety in the trial at 162 cm alongside Aviator, Hazlet, ND Dylan, ND Gardner, and Spooner. Those varieties which were the tallest within the trial also exhibited higher instances of lodging whereas Receptor and Tayo showed zero lodging in the trial and were two or the shortest varieties.

 

Table 28. Cereal rye harvest measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2025.

Variety	Winter survival	Vigor	Height	Lodging
	%	0-9†	cm	%
Aroostook	100	8.75*‡	162	38.8
Aviator	100	8.75*	160*	57.5
Danko	100	8.75*	151	25.0
Hazlet	100	8.75*	160*	60.0
ND Dylan	87.5	6.50	155*	41.3
ND Gardner	100	9.00	156*	78.8
Receptor	100	8.00	147	0.00
Serafino	100	8.00	146	6.25*
Spooner	95.0*	7.50	152*	57.5
Tayo	45.0	4.75	142	0.00
LSD (0.10) §	7.90	0.88	10.9	18.4
Trial mean	92.8	7.88	153	36.5

†Vigor 0=low vigor, 9=excellent vigor.

‡Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

§LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

There were significant differences across varieties for disease, arthropod, and combined foliar damage (Table 29). Foliar diseases reduce photosynthetic leaf area, deplete plant nutrients, and increase respiration and transpiration within colonized host tissues. The diseased plant typically exhibits reduced vigor, growth, and seed fill, thus impacting grain quality and yields. Earlier occurrence, greater degree of host susceptibility, and longer duration of conditions favorable for disease development will increase the risk of yield loss. Each plot was evaluated for the presence of several individual diseases and disease symptoms. These individual disease ratings were combined into a single foliar disease rating for statistical analysis. Diseases noted in the winter rye variety trial were rust, brown spot, mosaic virus, yellow stripe, and powdery mildew (in order from most severe to least). Similar to previous years Serafino appeared to be impacted the least by both arthropods and diseases with minimal disease pressure observed throughout the trial. Aviator, Receptor, and Tayo have similarly low levels of combined foliar damage.

Table 29. Disease and arthropod damage in winter rye varieties. Alburgh, VT, 2025.

Variety	Disease damage	Arthropod damage	Combined foliar damage
	% foliar surface affected
Aroostook	3.13	50.5	64.1
Aviator	1.87* ϯ	24.5*	27.5*
Danko	2.00*	39.5	49.3
Hazlet	1.53*	45.6	62.8
ND Dylan	3.00	47.7	69.7
ND Gardner	4.40	44.5	67.2
Receptor	1.00*	27.7*	29.4*
Serafino	1.20*	19.1	20.3
Spooner	4.33	44.1	67.1
Tayo	2.93*	20.9*	24.2*
LSD (0.10)‡	1.94	10.3	10.9
Trial mean	2.54	36.4	48.2

ϯWithin a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

Moisture measurements were recorded at harvest (Table 30).  The ideal moisture content for grain storage is below 13.5%.  Each variety at this stage of harvest was above the ideal moisture content for storage and required further drying. The ideal test weight for rye is 56 lbs bu^-1; none of the varieties met or exceeded this test weight. Danko had the highest overall test weight at 55.0 lb bu^-1 and was statistically similar to Aroostook (53.2 lb bu^-1), Receptor (54.7 lb bu^-1). Yields were once again lower when compared to peak years likely due to significant lodging within the trial. Trial average for the 2025 growing season was 2630 lbs ac^-1, comparable to 2024 growing season at 2945 lbs ac^-1, with top yielding variety Receptor reaching 4978 lbs ac^-1. Serafino was the only other variety reaching similar yields at 4533  lbs ac^-1. Falling number measures viscosity by recording the time in seconds it takes for a plunger to fall through a slurry to the bottom of a test tube. The viscosity is an indicator of enzymatic (alpha-amylase) activity in the kernel, which most often results from pre-harvest sprouting in the grain. Low falling number means high enzymatic activity, or more pre-harvest sprouting damage. This is most common if there are rain events as the grain is maturing prior to harvest. Values for falling number in each of the varieties was fairly high when compared to 2023 which had a number of varieties below 100 seconds. The highest observed falling number was seen in Serafino (354 seconds) with a trial average of 310 seconds. Danko, Receptor, and Tayo were statistically similar for falling number values at 329, 337, and 351 seconds respectively.

 

Table 30. Cereal rye grain quality. Alburgh, VT, 2025.

Variety	Moisture	Test weight	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Starch @12% moisture	Crude protein @ 12% moisture	Falling number
	%	lbs bu-1	lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds
Aroostook	16.0	53.2*	1753	61.2*	8.29	277
Aviator	16.8	51.1	2095	60.9	8.34	303
Danko	13.6	55.0	2801	61.5*	7.91	329*
Hazlet	16.5	51.7	1624	60.7	8.90	307
ND Dylan	16.7	50.5	1517	60.0	9.66	286
ND Gardner	16.6	48.5	1210	58.7	10.5	281
Receptor	18.2	54.7*	4978	61.8	7.43	337*
Serafino	20.1	52.3	4533*	61.5*	7.70	354
Spooner	15.9	51.2	1652	60.2	9.39	280
Tayo	22.1	49.3	4134	61.2*	8.04	351*
LSD (0.10)‡	1.78	1.92	735.2	0.638	0.559	33.4
Trial mean	17.3	51.8	2630	60.8	8.61	310

ϯ Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 Wheat with 12% crude protein is generally considered ideal for baking bread; however, it is unclear how protein concentrations in rye impact the baking characteristics. This year’s varieties resulted in a trial mean of 8.61% compared to a trial average of 7.00% in 2024 and 8.50% in 2023 (Table 6). Lower protein levels are characteristic of rye. The highest observed value for crude protein was seen in ND Gardener at 10.5% which has historically had higher protein levels in our trials. Starch measurements were also obtained from grain samples with the highest average starch content observed in Receptor at 61.8% and was statistically similar to Aroostook, Danko, Serafino, and Tayo.

Objective 3: To determine the optimum planting date and seed depth for cereal rye to maximize winter survival and yield/quality. 

2023 Rye Planting Date by Planting Depth Trial

Variety x planting date x seed depth interactions

 There were no significant interactions between variety, planting date, and planting depth, indicating that the varieties responded similarly to the various planting date and planting depth treatments. Similarly, there were no significant interactions between planting date and variety, and planting depth and variety. A slight interaction was observed between planting depth and planting date (p=0.086) for percent ground cover in the fall of 2022. Planting depths responded slightly differently to planting dates when looking at fall ground cover, however these impacts were minimal.

Impacts of variety

Varieties Tayo (hybrid) and Hazlet (open pollenated) were chosen as two commonly grown cereal rye varieties that generally perform well across a number of growing regions and also as representatives of the hybrid and open pollenated rye groups. No significant differences across any of the establishment or harvest measurement were observed in these two varieties indicating they both performed similarly under the given growing conditions (Table 31).

  Table 31. Impact of rye variety on harvest metrics, Alburgh, VT, 2023.

Variety	Fall population	Fall tiller	Fall canopy	Height	Lodging	Harvest moisture	Test weight	Yield @ 13.5% moisture
	plants ft-1	plant-1	%	cm	%	%	lbs bu-1	lbs ac-1
Hazlet	13.5	2.02	19.49	135	16.1	11.8	51.2	2759
Tayo	14.0	2.01	18.96	136	11.3	11.6	50.4	3479
LSD (0.10)‡	NS§	NS	NS	NS	NS	NS	NS	NS
Trial mean	13.8	2.02	19.22	135	13.7	11.7	50.8	3119

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

§NS; no significant differences between treatments.

 

Impacts of planting date

 When looking solely at the impacts of planting date on the various metrics, there were a number of significant differences across the five planting date treatments (Tables 32 and 33). Highest observed plant populations were seen from the first planting date (24-Sep) at 16.8 plants ft^-1 with no other planting dates showing a similar population. Similarly, fall tillers and fall canopy were highest in the first planting date as well at 4.34 tillers plant^-1, and 44.9% ground cover respectively. Each of these metrics showed a general decreasing trend from the first to the fifth planting dates.

Table 32. Impact of rye planting date on fall growth, Alburgh, VT, 2023.

Planting Date	Fall population		Fall tiller		Fall canopy
	plants ft-1		plant-1		%
24-Sep	16.8	a	4.34	a	44.9	a
3-Oct	12.4	cd †	2.41	b	21.3	b
10-Oct	11.5	d	1.32	c	12.5	c
16-Oct	14.5	b	1.00	d	10.9	c
22-Oct	13.7	bc	1.02	cd	6.45	d
LSD (0.10) ‡	1.73		0.316		4.04
Trial mean	13.8		2.02		19.2

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. The top performing treatment is shown in bold.

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

Prior to harvest, heights and lodging were recorded (Table 33). Tallest plants were seen in the first planting date (24-Sep) at 169 cm and showed a decreasing trend with later planting dates until the fifth planting date (22-Oct) at 112 cm. Lodging followed a similar trend with highest lodging observed in the first planting date at 36.3% and lowest observed in the fifth planting date at 1.5%. Yield, test weight, and moisture did not appear to be impacted by planting date. Harvest moistures were all within desirable ranges for each treatment within the trial falling below 14% moisture and averaging 11.7%. The test weight averaged 50.8 lbs bu^-1 falling below the desirable cereal rye test weight of 56 lbs bu^-1. Similarly, yields within the trial were quite low averaging only 3119 lbs ac^-1.

 

Table 33. Impact of rye planting date on harvest metrics, Alburgh, VT, 2023.

Planting Date	Height		Lodging		Harvest moisture	Test weight	Yield @ 13.5% moisture
	cm		%		%	lbs bu-1	lbs ac-1
24-Sep	169	a	36.3	c	12.1	51.2	3260
3-Oct	143	b†	13.5	bc	11.5	51.8	3032
10-Oct	131	bc	9.40	bc	10.9	50.9	2923
16-Oct	122	bc	7.70	b	12.2	49.7	3874
22-Oct	112	c	1.50	a	11.8	50.4	2506
LSD (0.10)‡	25.7		8.64		NS§	NS	NS
Trial mean	135		13.7		11.7	50.8	3119

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. The top performing treatment is shown in bold.

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

§NS; no significant differences between treatments.

Across planting dates, there was also a strong correlation (r=0.972471) between plant heights and lodging; as plant heights decreased, so did lodging. It is likely that those treatments planted earlier in the fall in 2022 had stronger stand establishment that resulted in more vigorous plants in the following spring, thus allowing plants to put on more growth leading up to harvest. While this could generally be considered a positive effect, weather conditions this season also had impacts on plant growth, which would have influenced taller plants significantly more than those shorter ones seen in later planting dates. While yields were not impacted in this scenario, it is possible that more severe lodging could greatly reduce harvestability. As such, more vigorous spring growth may not always be desirable.

 

Impacts of planting depth

 Planting depth did not appear to have any impact on any of the various measured metrics when planted at a depth of 0.5, 1.0, or 1.5” depths (Table 34).

 

Table 34. Rye planting depth establishment and harvest measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2023.

Planting Depth	Fall population	Fall tiller	Fall canopy	Height	Lodging	Harvest moisture	Test weight	Yield @ 13.5% moisture
	plants ft-1	plant-1	%	cm	%	%	lbs bu-1	lbs ac-1
0.5"	13.9	2.11	19.51	131	14.7	11.5	50.5	3560
1.0"	14.1	1.95	18.21	145	11.8	12.0	51.1	2835
1.5"	13.4	1.98	19.97	130	14.6	11.6	50.9	2931
LSD (0.10)‡	NS§	NS	NS	NS	NS	NS	NS	NS
Trial mean	13.8	2.02	19.2	135	13.7	11.7	50.8	3119

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

§NS; no significant differences between treatments.

2024 Rye Planting Date by Planting Depth Trial 

Within this trial, data for planting date three (PD3, 4-Oct), and planting date six (PD6, 30-Oct) are largely absent. While PD3 was planted with what is typically adequate time for establishment within the growing season, a major rain event occurred 7-Oct through 8-Oct in which over three inches of rain was accumulated during that period. This resulted in soil saturation and wash outs for many of the plots and overall very poor stand establishment. Conversely, PD6 did not have adequate conditions for germination and as such no data is represented for this planting date and associated treatments.

 

Variety x planting date x seed depth interactions

There were no significant interactions between variety, planting date, and planting depth, indicating that the varieties responded similarly to the various planting date and planting depth treatments. Similarly there were no significant interactions between variety and depth.

Planting date x seed depth interactions

A number of significant interactions were observed within the trial between planting date and seed depth indicating that seed depth treatments had different responses to planting date for the given metrics: winter survival, grain moisture, test weight, and yield (Table 35, Table 36).

Table 35. Rye planting date x planting depth establishment and spring green-up measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Planting date	Planting depth	Fall ground cover	Fall populations	Fall tillers	Spring ground cover	Winter survival	Spring populations	Spring tillers
		%	plants ft-1	tillers plant-1	%	%	plants ft-1	tillers plant-1
22-Sep	0.5”	38.2	14.6	2.86	36.9	89.4	19.8	5.33
22-Sep	1.0”	34.6	16.0	2.90	36.5	92.5	13.8	5.41
22-Sep	1.5”	35.0	15.1	2.77	33.0	85.0	16.5	6.14
29-Sep	0.5”	11.5	12.0	2.07	14.3	57.5	10.4	5.38
29-Sep	1.0”	14.3	14.0	2.45	20.6	65.0	10.9	4.81
29-Sep	1.5”	9.85	13.3	2.23	18.3	53.8	11.6	5.32
4-Oct	0.5”	2.20	7.00	0.890	0.499	3.50	2.38	2.15
4-Oct	1.0”	2.50	6.25	1.00	0.916	3.00	0.63	1.25
4-Oct	1.5”	2.86	6.75	1.00	0.656	4.13	1.13	1.56
11-Oct	0.5”	4.52	15.9	1.00	11.3	70.0	6.38	4.35
11-Oct	1.0”	3.68	14.3	1.04	5.91	25.8	3.50	1.89
11-Oct	1.5”	4.25	15.3	0.980	9.39	59.4	8.63	3.98
20-Oct	0.5”	0.668	11.5	1.00	6.05	46.3	7.13	2.70
20-Oct	1.0”	0.528	10.9	1.00	5.20	42.5	4.75	3.04
20-Oct	1.5”	0.718	10.1	1.00	5.64	52.5	7.88	3.02
p-value	-	NS	NS	NS	NS	0.0007	NS	NS
Trial mean	-	11.0	12.2	1.61	13.7	50.0	8.35	3.76

 

When looking at winter survival, the 1.0” planting depth treatments appeared to surpass those 0.5” and 1.5” treatments in both PD1 and PD2, whereas the last two planting dates the winter survival for the 1.0” depth dropped significantly when compared to the other two. Winter survival for PD3 was also severely impacted by heavy rain events in the fall across all planting depth treatments.

Grain moisture, test weight, and yield had the biggest differences in PD4, with 1.5” and 1.00” and treatments having lowest values for each in this planting date. While grain moisture was fairly consistent for other treatments, values were considerably lower in PD4 which seems to have, in turn, impacted test weight and yield.

 

Table 36. Rye planting date x planting depth harvest measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Planting date	Planting depth	Height	Lodging	Grain moisture	Test weight	Yield @ 13.5% moisture
		cm	%	%	lbs bu-1	lbs ac-1
22-Sep	0.5”	120	5.00	15.8	53.9	3708
22-Sep	1.0”	125	1.25	15.8	53.3	3467
22-Sep	1.5”	126	7.50	16.1	52.3	3056
29-Sep	0.5”	109	2.50	16.3	52.4	2004
29-Sep	1.0”	113	5.00	16.0	54.0	2783
29-Sep	1.5”	113	5.00	16.2	52.6	2286
11-Oct	0.5”	115	4.38	15.5	52.3	3515
11-Oct	1.0”	106	1.25	8.05	25.8	1586
11-Oct	1.5”	112	2.50	11.8	39.4	3032
20-Oct	0.5”	111	7.50	15.3	51.7	3141
20-Oct	1.0”	118	1.25	17.0	52.1	3278
20-Oct	1.5”	114	7.50	16.3	51.5	2782
p-value	-	NS	NS	0.031	0.307	0.016
Trial mean	-	115	4.22	15.0	49.3	2887

 

Impacts of variety

Varieties Tayo (hybrid) and Hazlet (open pollenated) were chosen as two commonly grown cereal rye varieties that generally perform well across a number of growing regions and also as representatives of the hybrid and open pollenated rye groups. A number of significant differences were observed across varieties within this trial (Tables 37 & 38). No noticeable differences were discerned between the two varieties while collecting fall measurements with each appearing to have similar establishments. Differences became apparent during spring green-up evaluation between winter survival, spring populations, and tiller counts. Hazlet appeared to be the hardier variety between the two with an average winter survival of 56.9%, and populations of 9.30 plants ft^-1.

 

 Table 37. Rye variety establishment and spring green-up measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Variety	Fall ground cover	Fall populations	Fall tillers	Spring ground cover	Winter survival	Spring populations	Spring tillers
	%	plants ft-1	tillers plant-1	%	%	plants ft-1	tillers plant-1
Hazlet	11.8	12.5	1.62	14.2	56.9	9.30	3.55
Tayo	10.3	11.9	1.60	13.1	43.1	7.40	3.96
LSD (0.10) ‡	NS §	NS	NS	NS	5.08	1.15	0.405
Trial mean	11.0	12.2	1.61	13.7	50.0	8.35	3.76

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level. The top performing treatment is shown in bold.

§NS; no significant differences between treatments.

 

Several differences were observed between the two varieties at harvest and in grain quality. Hazlet had the greatest average heights (126 cm), however was also more susceptible to lodging when compared to Tayo. Tayo treatments also had the highest yields at 3119 lbs ac^-1, with trial averages for Tayo and Hazlet being comparable to those of the variety trial conducted at Borderview Research Farm. Higher protein levels were observed in Hazlet at 8.23%, whereas Tayo had the higher average falling number at 295 seconds.

 

Table 38. Rye variety harvest and grain quality measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Variety	Height	Lodging	Grain moisture	Test weight	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Crude protein @12% moisture	Starch @12% moisture	Falling number
	cm	%	%	lbs bu-1	lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds
Hazlet	126	6.77	15.2	50.5	2655	8.23	61.4	157
Tayo	105	1.67	14.8	48.1	3119	7.53	61.8	295
LSD (0.10)	4.72	2.38	NS §	NS	364	0.220	0.2	14.6
Trial mean	115	4.22	15.0	49.3	2887	7.88	61.6	226

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level. The top performing treatment is shown in bold.

§NS; no significant differences between treatments.

 

Impacts of planting date

 When looking solely at the impacts of planting date on the various metrics, there were a number of significant differences across the five planting date treatments (Tables 39 and 40). Plant establishment in the fall was greatly impacted by weather events as seen in PD3 (4-Oct) in which some of the lowest populations and tiller counts were recorded, comparable to, or lower than, the latter two planting dates. Tillering and ground cover followed a clear declining trend from the first to the last planting date initially showing 35.9% cover at PD1, decreasing to 0.638% by PD5. Those plants in the first planting date also had the greatest number of tillers at 2.84 tillers plant^-1, with the last three planting dates showing significantly diminished tillering. These trends continued throughout the spring green-up period with greatest spring ground cover, winter survival, spring populations, and spring tillers observed in PD1. Spring tillers were statistically similar between PD1 and PD2 at 5.62 and 5.17 tillers plant^-1. Values for each spring metric were lowest in PD3 across the board highlighting the importance not only of planting date but also timing of plantings which can be exacerbated by major weather events. When compared to the 2023 growing season of this trial, similar trends were observed with a decreasing trend from the first to the fifth planting dates for ground cover and populations.

Table 39. Rye variety establishment and spring green-up measurements. Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Planting date	Fall ground cover	Fall populations	Fall tillers	Spring ground cover	Winter survival	Spring populations	Spring tillers
	%	plants ft-1	tillers plant-1	%	%	plants ft-1	tillers plant-1
22-Sep	35.9 a	15.3 a	2.84 a	35.5 a	89.0 a	16.7 a	5.62 a
29-Sep	11.9 b	13.1 b	2.25 b	17.7 b	58.8 b	11.0 b	5.17 a
4-Oct	2.52 c	6.67 d	0.960 c	0.690 d	3.54 d	1.38 d	1.66 c
11-Oct	4.15 cd †	15.1 ab	1.01 c	8.87 c	51.7 bc	6.17 c	3.41 b
20-Oct	0.638 d	10.8 c	1.00 c	5.63 c	47.1 c	6.58 c	2.92 b
LSD (0.10)	2.483	2.148	0.140	3.362	8.03	1.815	0.641
Trial mean	11.0	12.2	1.61	13.7	50.0	8.35	3.76

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. The top performing treatment is shown in bold.

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

Prior to harvest, heights and lodging were recorded (Table 40). PD3 was not harvested as a result of the poor stand establishment and plants were outcompeted by weeds throughout the growing season after spring measurements were taken. Tallest plants were seen in the first planting date at 124 cm with PD2, PD4, and PD5 all having statistically similar heights at 112, 111, and 115 cm respectively. Grain moisture was generally higher than desired for storage with those from PD1, PD2, and PD5 requiring additional drying (down to 13.5% moisture) to reduce potential for spoilage. Yield and test weight were highest in PD1 at 3411 lbs ac^-1 and 53.2 lbs bu^-1 respectively. Test weights were comparable in PD2 (53.0 lbs bu^-1) and PD5 (51.8 lbs bu^-1). An ideal falling number falls for wheat is between 250 and 300 seconds, however, lower falling numbers around 100-200 seconds have been acceptable to bakers using rye flour. Falling number for all treatments appeared to be within an acceptable range for baking with the highest falling number seen in PD1 at 242 seconds, and was statistically similar to PD2 (222 seconds and PD5 (224 seconds).

Table 40: Rye planting date harvest and grain quality measurements, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Planting date	Height	Lodging	Grain moisture	Test weight	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Crude protein @12% moisture	Starch @12% moisture	Falling number
	cm	%	%	lbs bu-1	lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds
22-Sep	124 a	4.58	15.9 b	53.2 a	3411 a	6.89 c	62.2 a	242 a
29-Sep	112 b	4.17	16.1 b	53.0 a	2358 c	7.33 b	62.0 a	222 ab
11-Oct	111 b	2.71	11.8 a	39.2 b	2711 bc	8.49 a	61.2 b	216 b
20-Oct	115 b	5.42	16.2 b	51.8 a	3067 b	8.79 a	61.0 b	224 ab
LSD (0.10)	6.68	NS§	1.76	4.85	515.4	0.311	0.291	20.6
Trial mean	115	4.22	15.0	49.3	2887	7.88	61.6	226

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly.  The top performing treatment is shown in bold.

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

§NS; no significant differences between treatments.

 

A strong negative correlation between crude protein and starch (r=-0.97443) was observed across planting dates: an increase in crude protein across planting dates resulted in a decrease in starch concentrations. Additionally, positive correlations were observed between lodging and crude protein (r=0.7248) and between lodging and starch (r=0.9892).

 

Objective 4: To determine the impact of nitrogen management on cereal rye yield and end-use quality.

2023 Rye Nitrogen Fertility Trial

Variety x fertility application interactions

There were no significant interactions between variety and fertility applications, indicating that the varieties responded similarly to the various fertility treatments.

Impacts of fertility applications

Table 41 displays field and harvest measurements.  Some slight differences were observed in fall and spring ground cover and establishment. Overall, each fertility treatment appeared to have good fall stand establishment and winter survival as reflected in the percent ground cover during the two observation periods. The 45-45 lbs N ac^-1 split application treatment had the highest overall ground cover at 92.8% coverage and was statistically similar to the spring and fall applied fertilizer treatments. Heights and lodging data were collected within the trial prior to harvest. There appeared to be no treatment impact from fertilizer applications on plant heights, however there was an observed impact on lodging. The control, receiving no supplemental fertilizer, had the lowest overall lodging at 49.4% and was statistically similar to the 45-45 split application and the 90 lbs N ac^-1 spring applied treatment, whereas the greatest observed lodging was seen in the 90 lbs N ac^-1 fall applied treatment at 74.4%.

Table 41. Rye nitrogen fertility establishment and harvest measurements, Alburgh, VT, 2023.

Treatment	Fall ground cover	Spring ground cover	Height	Lodging
	%	%	cm	%
45-45 lbs N ac-1 split application (fall/spring)	92.8a	86.3ab	139	68.1ab
90 lbs lbs N ac-1 fall applied	89.2ab	89.4a	140	74.4b
90 lbs lbs N ac-1 spring applied	88.7ab	83.6b	143	63.1ab
Control	87.2b	87.6ab	148	49.4a
LSD (p=0.10)	4.52	4.50	NS§	23.9
Trial mean	89.5	86.7	142	63.8

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. 

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

§NS; no significant differences between treatments.

 

Test weight, harvest moisture and yields are shown in Table 42. There were no significant differences between treatments for test weight with a trial average of 44.8 lbs bu^-1, well below the ideal test weight of 56.0 lbs bu^-1 for rye. Control plots had the lowest average harvest moisture at 19.3% and were statistically similar to the 45-45 split spring-fall application and the 90 lbs N ac^-1 spring applied nitrogen treatments. Ideal grain storage moisture is around 13.5% and all treatments would need to be further dried down to reduce potential crop loss. Yields were affected similarly by treatments with the control exhibiting highest yields at 4566 lbs ac^-1, again statistically similar to the 45-45 split spring-fall application and the 90 lbs N ac^-1 spring applied nitrogen treatments.

 

Table 42. Rye nitrogen fertility harvest and quality measurements, Alburgh, VT, 2023.

Treatment	Test weight	Harvest moisture	Yield @ 13.5%	Crude protein @ 12% moisture	Starch at 12% moisture	Falling Number	DON
	lbs bu-1	%	lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds	ppm
45-45 lbs N/ac split application (fall/spring)	44.0	20.7ab†	3884ab	8.31	61.3	113	3.50
90 lbs N/ac fall applied	43.9	21.5b	3402b	8.11	61.5	107	3.40
90 lbs N/ac spring applied	45.0	20.4ab	4222ab	8.21	57.8	123	3.40
Control	46.4	19.3a	4566a	7.70	62.0	130	3.80
LSD (p=0.10) ‡	NS§	1.91	1144	NS	NS	NS	NS
Trial mean	44.8	20.5	4019	8.08	60.7	118	3.50

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. 

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

§NS; no significant differences between treatments.

The four treatments were also analyzed for crude protein and starch concentrations, adjusted for 12% moisture, falling number, and DON concentrations (Table 42). Quality of cereal rye for crude protein, starch, and DON did not appear to be significantly influenced by fertility applications within this trial. Falling number had no significant differences across treatments with a trial average of 118 seconds. An ideal falling number falls for wheat is between 250 and 300 seconds, however, lower falling numbers around 100-200 seconds have been acceptable to bakers using rye flour. Falling number for all treatments appeared to be within an acceptable range for baking. Overall, DON levels were high this year and all treatments had levels of DON exceeding the 1 ppm threshold for safe human consumption.

2024 Rye Nitrogen Fertility Trial

Variety x fertility application interactions

There were no significant interactions between variety and fertility applications, indicating that the varieties responded similarly to the various fertility treatments.

 Impacts of fertility applications

Table 43 displays field and harvest measurements. Some differences were observed in spring ground cover with the highest coverage seen in the 45-45 lbs N ac^-1 split application treatment at 79.07% and was statistically similar to both the spring and fall applications of 90 lbs N ac^-1. Heights and lodging measurements were collected within the trial prior to harvest. All treatments receiving additional nitrogen applications had higher levels of lodging with the highest seen in the split application and the spring application at 78.1% lodging each. Conversely, the control receiving no supplemental nitrogen had the lowest overall lodging at 33.6%, despite having the tallest plants within the trial at 140cm.

 

Table 43. Rye nitrogen fertility establishment and harvest measurements, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Treatment	Fall ground cover	Spring ground cover	Height	Lodging
	%	%	cm	%
45-45 lbs N ac-1 split application (fall/spring)	62.79	79.1a †	129 b	78.1 c
90 lbs N ac-1 fall applied	64.60	78.3 a	138 a	56.9 b
90 lbs N ac-1 spring applied	65.41	68.7 ab	137 a	78.1 c
Control	60.08	66.3 b	140 a	33.6 a
LSD (p=0.10) ‡	NS §	10.9	6.50	20.8
Trial mean	63.22	73.1	136	61.7

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. 

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

§NS; no significant differences between treatments.

 

Significant differences in nitrogen treatments were observed in moisture, test weight, crude protein, starch, and falling number (Table 44). Ideal grain storage moisture is around 13.5% and all treatments would need to be further dried down to reduce potential crop loss. All grain tested below 14% with lowest observed moisture seen in the 90 lbs N ac^-1 spring applied treatment at 13.0%, which was statistically similar to the split nitrogen application at 13.4%, both below the ideal moisture for storage. The ideal test weight for rye is 56 lbs bu^-1; the only treatment meeting this standard was the 45-45 lbs N ac^-1 split application treatment at 56.5 lbs bu^-1 but was statistically similar to the 90 lbs N ac^-1 fall applied treatment at 55.3 lbs bu^-1. Yields did not appear to be impacted by nitrogen treatments with a trial average of 5201 lbs ac^-1, and highest yields seen in the split nitrogen application treatment at 5543 lbs ac^-1.

 

Table44. Rye nitrogen fertility harvest and quality measurements, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Treatment	Harvest moisture	Test weight	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Crude protein @ 12% moisture	Starch @ 12% moisture	Falling number
	%	lbs bu-1	lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds
45-45 lbs N ac-1 split application (fall/spring)	13.4 ab	56.5 a	5543	7.86 a	61.4c	196 b
90 lbs N ac-1 fall applied	13.9 b	55.3 a	5244	7.34 b	61.8 b	214 ab
90 lbs N ac-1 spring applied	13.0 a	52.0 b	5057	7.89 a	61.4 c	200 ab
Control	13.7 b	52.8 b	4961	6.86 c	62.2 a	216 a
LSD (p=0.10)	0.492	2.34	NS§	0.283	0.252	19.5
Trial mean	13.5	54.2	5201	7.49	61.7	206

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. 

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

§NS; no significant differences between treatments.

The four nitrogen treatments were also analyzed for crude protein and starch concentrations, adjusted for 12% moisture, falling number, and DON concentrations (Table 44). Quality of cereal rye for crude protein, starch and falling number all appeared to be significantly influenced by fertility applications within this trial. All treatments receiving supplemental nitrogen had significantly higher levels of crude protein when compared to the control, with the highest observed value seen in the 90 lbs N ac^-1 spring applied treatment. Conversely, the control treatment had the highest values for both starch and falling number at 62.2% and 216 seconds respectively. An ideal falling number falls for wheat is between 250 and 300 seconds, however, lower falling numbers around 100-200 seconds have been acceptable to bakers using rye flour. Falling number for all treatments appeared to be within an acceptable range for baking. One replication of the study was evaluated for DON levels, with no treatments exceeding the 1 ppm threshold considered safe for human consumption.

Predicted spirit yields (PSY) were not significantly different among the nitrogen fertility rate. While differences in PSY were not statistically significant across treatments, the highest observed value was seen in the control treatments at 368 LAA tonne^-1, which also had the highest starch concentrations (62.2%) and lowest crude protein (6.84%). This reflects a similar trend between crude protein and PSY as observed in the results from the variety trial. This study looked more closely at the timing of nitrogen applications versus the application rates - nitrogen availability is known to impact protein concentrations which would in turn have the potential to influence PSY. Higher nitrogen rates lead to higher protein concentrations and thus lower PSY and vice versa.  

Objective 5: To determine the impact of harvest date and variety on end-use quality.

Impact of Rye Harvest Date

Yield, harvest moisture, and test weight were measured at the time of harvest (Table 45). Yields were high across the trial, with the highest yield on HD1 (20-Jul) at 6639 lbs ac^-1.  Yield declined steadily through the harvest season and yield from the first harvest date was significantly different from all other dates. Harvest moisture varied across the study period with highest harvest moisture occurring at the first harvest date and lowest occurring at the second harvest date. The moisture content at the second date was statistically dissimilar from the other dates and was the only harvest date when the moisture was below 14% and did not require additional drying down for storage. Test weight was highest in HD2 (29-Jul) at 53.7 lbs bu^-1 with no other harvest dates statistically similar.

Table 45. Harvest data and grain quality for winter rye harvest dates, Alburgh, VT, 2022.

Harvest date	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Harvest moisture	Test weight	Starch	Crude protein	Falling number
	lbs ac-1	%	lbs bu-1	%	%	seconds
20-Jul	6639a†	22.3c	52.1b	62.9	6.44c	263b
29-Jul	6012b	13.3a	53.7a	62.8	6.54bc	262b
4-Aug	5869b	16.9b	52.2ab	60.9	6.66ab	277b
12-Aug	5826b	18.3c	48.8c	62.7	6.71a	109a
LSD (p=0.10)‡	575	1.23	1.27	NS¥	0.18	20.9
Trial mean	6087	17.7	51.7	62.3	6.59	228

†Within a column, harvest dates with the same letter were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD - least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

^¥NS – No significant differences.

 Crude protein varied very little across harvest dates, although the later harvest dates were statistically different from the earlier ones. Protein for all harvest dates was below the desired range for ideal rye baking quality (<8%). There was no statistical difference in starch content and all harvest dates had starch within the acceptable range for rye flour. Falling number was highest at the 3^rd harvest date and lowest at the 4^th harvest date, disrupting a trend observed in previous years of the study when falling number declined as the study proceeded. While more research is underway to confirm ideal falling numbers for rye, preliminary research seems to put this value between 150-200 seconds. The first three harvest dates all had falling number above this range and the final harvest date had falling number below.

Impact of Variety

The varieties varied significantly in terms of all parameters measured. The highest yielding variety across the four harvest dates was Serafino at 7042 lbs bu^-1 (Table 46). This was statistically similar to Bono at 6926 lbs bu^-1. Rye yields were very high across all the rye trials at Borderview Research farm in 2022. Harvest moisture varied significantly between varieties but on average all were above moisture content required for long term storage. Serafino had the highest test weight at 52.2 lbs bu^-1, and was statistically similar to all other varieties.

Table 46. Harvest data and grain quality for winter rye varieties, Alburgh, VT, 2022.

Variety	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Harvest moisture	Test weight	Starch	Crude protein	Falling number
	lbs ac-1	%	lbs bu-1	%	%	seconds
Bono	6926a†	17.9b	52.1	62.9a	6.26b	266c
Danko	5619b	16.9a	51.6	60.6b	6.91a	202b
Hazlet	4760c	17.7b	50.9	62.7ab	6.92a	162a
Serafino	7042a*	18.2b	52.2	63.1a	6.27b	280c
LSD(p=0.10) ‡	575	1.23	NS§	2.22	0.18	20.9
Trial mean	6087	17.7	51.7	62.3	6.59	228

†Within a column, harvest dates with the same letter were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD - least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

§NS – No significant differences.

 

Serafino also had the highest starch at 63.1%, statistically similar to Bono at 62.9%. All varieties had acceptable starch content. Hazlet had the highest protein concentrations at 6.92%, statistically similar to Danko at 6.91%. Averaged across the four harvest dates, Hazlet had a significantly lower falling number compared to all other varieties.

Harvest date x variety interactions

There were no statistically significant harvest date x variety interactions for yield, test weight, starch, protein, and falling number; in other words, both varieties performed similarly at each harvest date in terms of these characteristics. The only statistically significant effect of harvest date by variety was in terms of harvest moisture and variety. For each harvest date, a different variety had the lowest moisture content.

2023 Rye Harvest Date Trial

Impact of Harvest Date

Yield was measured at the time of harvest (Table 47). Yields were highest at HD4 on 11-Aug at 4430 lbs ac^-1.  This was statistically similar to yields from HD1 and HD2. The lowest yield was HD3 with 3597 lbs ac^-1. The highest protein was 6.87% (adjusted to 12% moisture content) on HD3. The other harvest dates ranged from 6.53-6.58% protein. HD3 also produced the rye with the highest starch concentrations at 63.3% (also adjusted to 12% moisture content). The other harvest dates ranged from 63.0-63.3%. Falling number declined steadily over the harvest dates. The highest falling number was on HD1 at 249 seconds, declining to 165 seconds by the second harvest date, 146 seconds by the third, and 89 seconds on the fourth harvest date.

 Table 47. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye harvest dates, Alburgh, VT, 2023.

Harvest date	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Crude protein @ 12% moisture	Starch @ 12% moisture	Falling number
	lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds
25-Jul	4308a†	6.53b	63.0b	249a
1-Aug	4422a	6.55b	63.0b	165b
6-Aug	3597b	6.58b	63.3a	146b
11-Aug	4430a	6.87a	63.0b	89c
LSD (p=0.10)‡	533	0.24	0.23	32.7
Trial mean	4189	6.63	63.1	162

†Within a column, treatments with the same letter were not statistically different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

Impact of Variety

The highest yielding variety across harvest dates was Bono, with 4855 lbs ac^-1. This was statistically similar to Serafino with 4407 lbs ac^-1. Hazlet had the highest concentrations of protein at 7.19%, statistically dissimilar from the other varieties (Table 48). Serafino had the highest starch concentrations at 63.31%, similar to Bono and Danko. Danko had the lowest falling number averaged across the four harvest dates at 105 seconds. This was statistically similar to Danko with a falling number of 130 seconds.

 

Table 48. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye varieties, Alburgh, VT, 2023.

Variety	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Crude protein @ 12% moisture	Starch @ 12% moisture	Falling number
	lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds
Bono	4855a†	6.43bc	63.1a	184b
Danko	4250b	6.62b	63.1a	130a
Hazlet	3244c	7.19a	62.8b	105a
Serafino	4407ab	6.29c	63.3a	229c
LSD(p=0.10)‡	533	0.24	0.23	32.7
Trial mean	4189	6.63	63.1	162

†Within a column, treatments with the same letter were not statistically different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

 Harvest date x variety interactions

There were no statistically significant harvest date x variety interactions; in other words, all varieties performed similarly at each harvest date.

2024 Rye Harvest Date Trial

Impact of Harvest Date

Yield was measured at the time of each harvest date (Table 49). Yields were highest at HD1 (19-Jul) at 5471 lbs ac^-1.  This was statistically similar to HD2 and HD3. The lowest yield was HD4 with 1992 lbs ac^-1. The highest protein was 7.68% (adjusted to 12% moisture content) on HD3. The other harvest dates ranged from 6.97-7.12% protein. HD4 also produced the rye with the highest starch concentrations at 62.3% (adjusted to 12% moisture content). The other harvest dates ranged from 61.6-62.1%. The average falling number declined steadily over the harvest dates. The highest falling number was on HD1 at 225 seconds average, falling to 209 seconds by the second harvest date, 179 seconds by the third, and 105 seconds on the fourth harvest date.

 Table 49. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye harvest dates, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Harvest date	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Crude protein @ 12% moisture	Starch @ 12% moisture	Falling number
	lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds
19-Jul	5471a †	7.12 b	61.9 b	225 a
26-Jul	4781 a	6.97 b	62.1 a	209 a
2-Aug	4995 a	7.68 a	61.6 c	179 b
9-Aug	1992 b	7.17 b	62.3 a	105 c
LSD (p=0.10) ‡	694	0.21	0.21	25.1
Trial mean	4310	7.24	61.9	180

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. 

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

 Impact of Variety

The highest yielding variety across harvest dates was Danko, with 4819 lbs ac^-1. This was statistically similar to Bono and Serafino. Hazlet had the highest concentration of protein at 7.54%, statistically higher than all other varieties. Bono and Danko were tied for the highest starch concentrations at 62.1%, similar to Serafino. Hazlet had the lowest falling number averaged across the four harvest dates at 158 seconds. This was statistically similar to Danko with a falling number of 167 seconds.

 

Table 50. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye varieties, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Variety	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Crude protein @ 12% moisture	Starch @ 12% moisture	Falling number
	lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds
Bono	4312 a †	7.06 b	62.1 a	199 a
Danko	4819 a	7.19 b	62.1 a	167 b
Hazlet	3469 b	7.54 a	61.7 b	158 b
Serafino	4638 a	7.16 b	62.0 a	196 a
LSD (p=0.10) ‡	694	0.21	0.21	25.1
Trial mean	4310	7.24	61.9	180

†Treatments marked with the same letter do not differ significantly. 

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

Harvest date x variety interactions

There were several significant variety x harvest date interactions(Table 51).

 

Table 51. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye varieties, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Variety	Harvest Date	Height	Lodging	Harvest moisture	Test weight
		cm	%	%	lbs bu-1
Bono	1	124	5.00	12.8	56.7
	2	125	32.5	14.2	53.0
	3	126	32.5	15.1	50.9
	4	121	82.5	15.8	52.8
Danko	1	141	31.3	13.6	53.6
	2	140	30.0	14.3	53.9
	3	137	70.0	14.7	52.1
	4	143	62.5	15.9	52.6
Hazlet	1	161	85.0	13.0	52.3
	2	144	82.5	13.8	52.6
	3	148	82.5	14.3	52.3
	4	146	85.0	15.9	50.6
Serafino	1	130	40.0	14.5	51.2
	2	129	57.5	13.4	53.6
	3	134	77.5	14.9	52.0
	4	130	82.5	16.4	52.8
p-value (0.10)		NS†	0.001	NS	0.016
Trial mean		136	58.7	14.5	52.7

† NS; Not statistically significant

Patterns in lodging had little similarity across varieties, but they were all high on the final harvest date. Hazlet had high lodging throughout the trial even at the first harvest date. Serafino’s lodging increased steadily as it sat in the field. Danko had a marked increase in lodging between HD 2 and HD3, with similar lodging rates in the first and last two harvest dates. Bono had a slight increase in lodging after the first harvest date and a marked increase after the third harvest date.

Test weight had the biggest differences between varieties on HD1, with Bono having the highest and Serafino the lowest. Bono declined in test weight over the first three harvest dates but on the final harvest date had test weight similar to the test weight on HD2. On the final harvest date, Hazlet had much lower test weight than the rest.

Yield had the biggest differences on HD1 and HD2, and they all decreased by HD4 due to lodging (Table 52). Yields for Danko and Hazlet declined on HD2, unlike Bono and Serafino which stayed relatively consistent from HD1 to HD2 and declined over the last two harvest dates. For starch, all varieties performed similarly except for Hazlet, which was lower than the rest on HD2 and HD4.

Table 52. Harvest measurements and grain quality for winter rye varieties, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Variety	Harvest Date	Yield @ 13.5% moisture	Crude protein @12% moisture	Starch @ 12% moisture	Falling number
		lbs ac-1	%	%	seconds
Bono	1	5687	7.07	61.8	231
	2	5934	6.55	62.4	260
	3	4528	7.75	61.5	160
	4	1100	6.86	62.5	146
Danko	1	6057	7.05	61.9	225
	2	4379	7.05	62.2	178
	3	5262	7.68	61.7	185
	4	3578	6.99	62.6	80
Hazlet	1	4412	7.11	61.9	236
	2	3113	7.59	61.6	129
	3	5148	7.49	61.9	202
	4	1203	7.96	61.6	64
Serafino	1	5730	7.24	61.9	209
	2	5698	6.7	62.4	274
	3	5040	7.8	61.3	169
	4	2085	6.88	62.6	132
p-value (0.10)		0.043	0.002	0.002	0.001
Trial mean		4310	7.24	61.9	180

Protein concentrations for the varieties showed a similar pattern for three varieties (Serafino, Danko and Bono) with a slight decrease in protein between the first and second harvest dates, higher protein on the third harvest date, and lower protein again on HD4. Hazlet had higher protein on HD2, a very small decrease in protein on HD 3, and an increase in protein on HD4. Bono and Serafino showed similar reactions to harvest date in terms of falling number, with slightly higher falling number on the second harvest date but declining steadily on harvest dates 3 and 4. Danko and Hazlet had falling numbers that fell on HD 2, rose or stayed steady on HD3, and declined precipitously on HD 4.

Falling number

Falling number measures viscosity by recording the time in seconds it takes for a plunger to fall through a slurry to the bottom of a test tube.  The viscosity is an indicator of enzymatic (alpha-amylase) activity in the kernel, which most often results from pre-harvest sprouting in the grain.  Low falling number means high enzymatic activity, or more pre-harvest sprouting damage.  This is most common if there are rain events as the grain is ripening prior to harvest.  Falling number is a widely understood indicator of wheat flour quality, though its use as an indicator of rye flour quality is less understood.  Low falling number in wheat, below 250, has a negative impact on bread quality and can lead to lower prices paid for the wheat or possible rejection at the mill.  The ideal range for wheat is 250-350.  High falling numbers, over 400 seconds, can potentially lead to slower fermentation, poorer loaf volume and drier bread texture, depending on the end product although effects of high falling number can be mitigated by addition of malt extract. Because rye bread relies on different grain components to create high-quality bread, and ferments more quickly than wheat, it is expected that lower falling numbers are preferred for rye than for wheat, likely lower than 200 seconds and potentially as low as 100 seconds. For rye in particular, waiting longer to harvest may result in grains that are more suited for baking as currently, bakers seem to desire lower falling numbers than are needed for wheat. Rye from the 2022-2023 harvest date trial was too high in DON concentrations to be used in bake tests to test for effects of falling number on baking quality. However, bake tests were completed in 2024. 

In April 2025 UVM, in conjunction with Red Hen Baking and King Arthur Baking Company, conducted bake trials and sensory evaluations of rye breads baked with flour from the 2024 harvest date trial to gain a deeper understanding of the quality of a rye crop and the impacts of falling number on bread attributes. Within this trial, the two rye varieties were harvested at weekly intervals over four weeks, with various field and harvest metrics collected over this period. Additionally, standard lab analyses for cereal quality were conducted in the E.E. Cummings Crop Testing Laboratory including grain starch and crude protein concentrations, and falling number. Each of these analyses are typical indicators of grain quality for both growers and bakers.

 

Sample ID        Variety	Harvest date	Starch @ 12% moisture content	Protein @ 12% moisture content	Falling Number
H1                        Hazlet	1	62.65	7.15	289
H3                        Hazlet	3	62.64	7.63	199
H2                       Hazlet	2	62.95	7.16	124
D1                       Danko	1	62.76	7.01	243
D3                       Danko	3	62.60	7.57	197
D4                       Danko	4	63.17	6.92	72

Where professional bakers assess the baking quality of the grains and often utilize lab analyses to discern differences and adjust recipes, the objective data generated by descriptive sensory panels can help to predict consumer preferences and overall liking.

Across the three locations where breads were evaluated, some commonalities were observed for each sample. D4 was considered a favorite and had a better overall texture and bread identity. This included positive reactions from tasters regarding the fermented smell and taste, better mouthfeel, and nicer crust. H3 also showed a greater deal of caramelization compared to the other two Hazlet samples, and was noted as having the “longest journey of flavor” of the samples, indicating flavor development and complexity.

Observationally breads from H2 and D4, having the lowest falling numbers, were more depressed and spread out, and exhibited a faster fermentation rate as well as more crust caramelization. Conversely, those samples of H1 and D1 having the highest falling numbers ultimately had less developed flavors and were noted to have diminished or less persistent aftertaste in addition to lighter coloration.

While some samples stood out amongst the others, there was a general consensus that the sensory quality of the breads were not meaningfully different from a descriptive sensory analysis perspective. Though in terms of baker preferences between the test bakers, samples from D1 or H1 would not be sold by one baker, whereas no samples were deemed to have any particular deficiencies by another baker. Although the same recipe was followed with no variations for each rye flour for the purposes of comparative evaluation, the bakers also noted that minor adjustments in the recipe (primarily increasing the hydration) could produce a better bread with samples D1, D3, H1 and H2.

After conducting this second round of testing using a standardized recipe, it appears that a range of falling number values can produce good quality rye breads. Adjustments can be easily made to develop a workable or preferable dough which would similarly result in an acceptable, quality rye bread. Most importantly, falling number does not appear to be critical for baking quality , and should not result in a rejection of a grain crop given these results, whereas this might be the case for wheat samples with a low falling number.

Objective 6: To determine which cereal rye varieties are most appropriate for forage and cover crop end-uses 

2023 Rye Cover Crop and Forage Variety Trial

Ground cover measurements were taken using the Canopeo application in the fall after plant establishment and again in the spring. Fall ground cover measurements were taken as an indicator of stand establishment and plant vigor. Within the trial, Danko showed the highest percentage of ground cover prior to hard frost in November 2022 with 73.5% cover and was statistically similar to Bono, Covermax, Hazlet, ND Dylan, Spooner, Tayo and VNS. Similarly, spring ground cover measurements showed that most varieties had good survivability throughout the winter going into the spring green-up period with Spooner having the highest percentage of cover at 73.4%. ND Gardner, Progas, and Serafino appeared to have the lowest percentage of cover and overall vigor during these evaluation periods. Those varieties that had the highest fall ground cover also tended to have the best spring cover too. Interestingly, Progas is a forage specific variety that did have some of the highest forage yields but also had the lowest fall and spring cover. This leads to more questions regarding best dual purpose rye varieties for both optimizing conservation goals and forage production.

 Table 53. Winter rye ground cover, Alburgh, VT, 2022-2023.

Variety	Fall ground cover	Spring ground cover
	%	%
Aroostook	39.4	47.7*
Bono	53.3*†	53.0*
Covermax	62.0*	59.8*
Danko	73.5	62.8*
Hazlet	55.9*	54.7*
ND Dylan	67.5*	61.3*
ND Gardner	38.1	33.6
Progas	36.7	42.3
Serafino	29.8	29.8
Spooner	65.0*	73.4
Tayo	57.0*	49.2*
VNS	72.4*	56.6*
LSD (0.10) ‡	25.6	30.4
Trial mean	54.2	52.0

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

Rye forage and straw yields were collected at three key periods throughout the 2023 growing season: spring green-up, boot stage, and flowering (Table 54). Dry matter yields were high across all varieties during this period with Spooner having the highest yields at 3651 lbs ac^-1. Serafino was the only variety at this period (in addition to boot and flowering stage) that did not perform similarly to other top yielding varieties. Danko produced the highest yields at boot stage at 6,063 lbs ac^-1 and was statistically similar to Bono, Covermax, Hazlet, ND Dylan, ND Gardner, Progas, Spooner, and VNS rye. Highest yields at flowering stage were seen with Covermax at 12,215 lbs ac^-1 and was statistically similar to Aroostook, Bono, Danko, Hazlet, ND Dylan, Progas, Spooner and the VNS rye. Each of these would be suitable for roller crimping and provide good ground cover in addition to producing high amounts of straw.

 

Table 54. Winter rye dry matter and yields at spring green-up, boot, and flowering growth stages, Alburgh, VT 2023.

Variety	Spring forage dry matter	Spring forage dry matter yield	Boot stage dry matter	Boot stage  dry matter yield	Flowering stage dry matter	Flowering stage dry matter yield
	%	lbs ac-1	%	lbs ac-1	%	lbs ac-1
Aroostook	21.9	2667*	16.3	3056	36.5	10133*
Bono	21.8	2731*	16.9	5156*	32.2	10940*
Covermax	21.2	3111*	18.0	5685*	32.7	12215
Danko	20.5	3301*	16.4	6063	32.9	10484*
Hazlet	21.5	2921*	17.6	5354*	45.8	10872*
ND Dylan	22.4*†	2674*	16.9	5273*	32.6	9673*
ND Gardner	24.1	2464*	18.1	4684*	35.4	10290*
Progas	21.5	2603*	17.1	5101*	32.4	10139*
Serafino	23.3*	2110	20.7	3494	32.4	8809
Spooner	22.1*	3651	20.2*	4437*	34.4	12189*
Tayo	23.5*	2914*	18.2*	4206	32.6	8797
VNS	20.1	3124*	16.4	4960*	32.9	10983*
LSD (0.10) ‡	1.98	1474	2.57	1802	8.67	2745
Trial mean	22	2856	17.8	4789	34.4	10460

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

Forage quality was analyzed for each rye sample at boot stage as this would be indicative of the optimum period for quality and yields (Table 55). Each of these varieties reached boot stage between 9-May and 18-May 2023. Highest observed crude protein concentrations were seen in Aroostook at 15.37% and was statistically similar to Covermax, Hazlet, ND Dylan, Serafino, Spooner, and Tayo. When looking at forage quality, no significant differences were observed in Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF). Conversely, differences in rye varieties were observed in amylase Neutral Detergent Fiber organic matter (aNDFom) and Neutral Detergent Fiber Digestibility 30hr (NDFDom30). NDFDom30 indicates the percentage of NDF digested in 30 hours of fermentation, whereas the NDFDom30 yields are indicative of the total amount of feed that would be fermentable during this 30-hour period. All of the varieties within the trial were of good quality for NDFDom30 when compared to other forages with those with highest percentage of digestible fibers seen in Aroostook at 76.80% and was statistically similar to Covermax, Hazlet, ND Dylan, Serafino, and Spooner. NDFDom30 yields show a uniform digestible fiber yields were highest for ND Dylan at 2,710 lbs ac^-1 and was statistically similar to Bono, Covermax, Danko, and Hazlet.

 

Table 55. Winter rye forage quality at plant boot stage. Alburgh, VT 2023

Variety	Boot stage harvest date	Crude protein	ADF	aNDFom	NDFDom30	NDFDom30
	%	%	%	%	% NDF	lbs ac-1
Aroostook	9-May	15.4	28.5	48.2	76.8	1125
Bono	15-May	12.5	31.6	54.4	68.9	1935*
Covermax	18-May	14.3*†	29.8	51.5*	72.0*	2109*
Danko	15-May	11.0	31.0	54.1*	65.8	2167*
Hazlet	18-May	13.9*	28.4	51.2*	74.3*	2048*
ND Dylan	18-May	13.6*	29.8	51.4*	72.3*	2710
ND Gardner	15-May	12.1	31.1	52.9*	67.3	1670
Progas	18-May	12.2	29.1	51.7*	68.6	1799
Serafino	11-May	14.5*	28.2	48.3	74.9*	1136
Spooner	11-May	13.5*	28.3	49.9*	71.7*	1569
Tayo	18-May	13.4*	30.1	52.0*	69.9	1516
VNS	15-May	11.3	29.8	52.2*	67.7	1760
LSD (0.10) ‡	-	2.46	NS§	4.92	62.3	793
Trial mean	-	13.1	29.7	51.5	70.9	1795

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

§NS; No significant difference between treatments.

Ground cover measurements were taken using the Canopeo application in the fall after plant establishment and again in the spring. Fall ground cover measurements were taken as an indicator of stand establishment and plant vigor. Within the trial Receptor showed the highest percentage of ground cover prior to hard frost in October 2023 with 74.9% cover and was statistically similar to Aroostook, Hazlet, ND Gardener, and Progas. Similar trends followed through into spring ground cover with Receptor once again having the greatest coverage at 84.2% alongside these same varieties (minus Progas). Danko appeared to have the lowest overall coverage during both periods. As seen from fall biomass sample, greater ground cover did not necessarily result in greater biomass production with Receptor having the lowest biomass alongside Serafino at 104 lbs ac^-1. Aroostook had nearly twice the biomass production at this sampling time at 207 lbs ac^-1.

 

Table 56. Winter rye ground cover and fall biomass, Alburgh, VT, 2023-2024.

Variety	Fall ground cover	Fall dry matter	Fall biomass	Spring ground cover
	%	%	lbs ac-1	%
Aroostook	70.7*†	13.1	207	83.8*
Covermax	64.8	11.2*	120	75.4
Danko	55.4	11.2*	139*	75.0
Hazlet	68.1*	11.9*	169*	80.9*
ND Gardener	67.4*	12.1*	163*	82.3*
Progas	71.4*	9.10	157*	77.0
Receptor	74.9	12.0*	104	84.2
Serafino	58.0	9.70	104	75.9
Spooner	57.6	11.7*	170*	72.6
Tayo	63.7	12.4*	120	77.7
LSD (0.10)‡	7.83	2.26	73.0	5.50
Trial mean	65.2	11.4	145	78.5

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

Rye forage and straw yields were collected at three key periods throughout the 2024 growing season: spring green-up (at approximately 6 inch grazing height), boot stage, and flowering (Table 57). Dry matter yields were high across all varieties during spring green-up period with Receptor having the highest yields at 4313 lbs ac^-1. Progas was the only variety at this period that did not perform similarly to other top yielding varieties. Hazlet produced the highest yields at boot stage at 12,762 lbs ac^-1 and was statistically similar to Covermax, Danko, ND Gardener, Progas, and Receptor. Highest yields at flowering stage were seen with Covermax at 20,313 lbs ac^-1 and was statistically similar to Receptor only, despite high yields across the trial. Each of these would be suitable for roller crimping and provide good ground cover in addition to producing high amounts of straw.

 

Table 57. Winter rye dry matter and yields at spring green-up, boot, and flowering growth stages, Alburgh, VT, 2024.

Variety	Spring forage dry matter	Spring forage dry matter yield	Boot stage dry matter	Boot stage  dry matter yield	Flowering stage dry matter	Flowering stage dry matter yield
	%	lbs ac-1	%	lbs ac-1	%	lbs ac-1
Aroostook	30.1	4119*	30.1	8562	42.9	17104
Covermax	32.1*†	3980*	32.1*	11284*	47.9*	20313
Danko	30.1	4265*	30.1	11237*	43.6	13950
Hazlet	31.8*	4026*	31.8*	12762	44.2*	17050
ND Gardener	29.0	4233*	29.0	11344*	48.2	16350
Progas	34.2	3686	34.2	10892*	42.7	17869
Receptor	32.5*	4313	32.5*	11758*	42.5	18506*
Serafino	32.3*	4295*	32.3*	9675	44.1	14794
Spooner	29.2	4188*	29.2	9712	45.2*	13988
Tayo	31.6*	4164*	31.6*	9948	43.8	17970
LSD (0.10)‡	2.93	508	2.93	2362	4.12	2200
Trial mean	31.3	4127	31.3	10717	44.5	16790

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.

 

Forage quality was analyzed for each rye sample at boot stage as this would be indicative of the optimum period for quality and yields (Table 58). Each of these varieties reached boot stage between 9-May and 16-May 2024, slightly earlier (by two days) when compared to 2023. The highest observed crude protein concentrations were seen in Receptor at 15.9% and was statistically similar to Aroostook, Covermax, Hazlet, ND Gardener, Serafino, Spooner, and Tayo. When looking at forage quality, significant differences were observed in Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) with Progas alone having the highest ADF concentration at 36.6%. Additionally, differences across rye varieties were observed in amylase Neutral Detergent Fiber organic matter (aNDFom) and Neutral Detergent Fiber Digestibility 30hr (NDFDom30). NDFDom30 indicates the percentage of NDF digested in 30 hours of fermentation, whereas the NDFDom30 yields are indicative of the total amount of feed that would be fermentable during this 30-hour period. All of the varieties within the trial had exceptional NDFDom30 with highest percentage of digestible fibers seen in Aroostook at 80.7% and was statistically similar to Spooner at 76.8%. The NDFDom30 yields showed Aroostook having the highest overall yields at 9,592 lbs ac^-1 and was statistically similar to Danko, Hazlet, ND Gardener, Progas, and Receptor.

 

Table 58. Winter rye forage quality at plant boot stage. Alburgh, VT 2024

Variety	Boot stage harvest date	Crude protein	ADF	aNDFom	NDFDom30	NDFDom30
		%	%	%	%NDF	lbs ac-1
Aroostook	9-May	15.1*†	29.3	53.1	80.7	9592
Covermax	16-May	14.2*	34.6	59.9*	70.4	7727
Danko	13-May	13.4	30.2	53.9	71.0	8399*
Hazlet	16-May	14.5*	34.0	59.6*	71.3	9298*
ND Gardener	9-May	13.8*	31.1	55.0	72.1	8232*
Progas	16-May	13.3	36.6	61.1	67.5	8238*
Receptor	16-May	15.9	32.8	56.8	73.5	8901*
Serafino	16-May	13.8*	34.7	59.0*	68.4	7171
Spooner	9-May	14.0*	29.0	51.3	76.8*	7391
Tayo	16-May	14.9*	32.9	57.7	72.0	6871
LSD (0.10)‡		2.57	1.77	2.71	4.74	1581
Trial mean		14.3	32.5	56.7	72.4	8182

†Within a column, varieties with an asterisk (*) were not different from the top performer (in bold).

‡LSD; least significant difference at the p=0.10 level.